Microplastic Pollution: Environmental Occurrence and Treatment Technologies

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgment
Contents
Part I: Introduction to Plastic pollution
Chapter 1: Emerging Issue of Microplastic in Sediments and Surface Water in South Asia: A Review of Status, Research Needs, and Data Gaps
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Microplastic Distribution in the Water Bodies of South Asia
1.3 Microplastics in the Sediments of South Asia
1.4 Abundance of Microplastics in South Asia
1.5 Types of Microplastics Based on Shape in South Asia
1.6 Sources of Microplastics in South Asia
1.7 Microplastic Trends Based on Polymer Type in South Asia
1.8 Research Gaps Found in South Asia
1.9 Possible Research Solution
1.10 Research Needs Regarding MP Quantification
1.11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Extraction, Enumeration, and Identification Methods for Monitoring Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Data Collection
2.2.1 Selection of Sampling Areas and Main Parameters During the Process
2.2.2 Sampling for Microplastics
2.2.3 Contamination
2.2.4 Laboratory Conditions and Main Parameters
2.3 Microplastics Sampling Methods in Aquatic Ecosystems
2.3.1 Sampling Methods in Water Surface and Water Column
2.3.2 Sampling Methods in Sediment
2.4 Separation of Microplastics from Samples
2.4.1 Sieving
2.4.2 Elutriation
2.5 Density Separation
2.5.1 Flotation
2.5.2 Removal of Organic Matter
2.5.2.1 Acid and Alkaline Digestion
2.5.2.2 Wet Oxidation Peroxide (WPO)
2.5.2.3 Treatment with Fenton Reagent (Fe2 + with H2O2)
2.6 Filtration
2.7 Identification, Chemical Characterization, and Quantification
2.7.1 Microscopy Analysis
2.7.2 Instrumental Analysis of Microplastics
2.7.2.1 Infrared Microscopy: Transmission/ATR/Micro-Fourier Infrared Transform (μ-FTIR) Spectroscopy
2.7.2.2 Raman Spectroscopy
2.7.2.3 Thermo-analytical Methods: Pyrolysis Mass Spectrometry Gas Chromatography (Pyr-GC/MS) and Thermo-extraction Desorption Gas Chromatography (TED-GC/MS))
2.8 Results and Accurate Reporting Criteria
2.9 Recommendations and Future Works
References
Chapter 3: Monitoring of Microplastic Pollution
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Microplastic Sampling
3.2.1 Non-discrete Sampling Instruments
3.2.1.1 Nets
3.2.1.2 Pumping Systems
3.2.2 Discrete Sampling Instruments
3.2.3 Limitations
3.3 Extraction of Microplastic
3.4 Identification of Microplastic
3.4.1 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) and Raman Spectroscopy
3.4.2 Pyr-GC MS
3.4.3 Remote Sensing Technology
3.5 Monitoring Through Marine Animals
3.6 Proposed Solution to Microplastic Pollution
References
Chapter 4: Polymer Types of Microplastic in Coastal Areas
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Polymer Composition of MPs in Coastal Ecosystems
References
Chapter 5: Evaluation of Different Metrics to Study Microplastics as an Environmental Forensic Tool
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Source, Sinks, and Pathways
5.3 Role of Metrics in Environmental Forensics
5.4 Water as Metrics for the Study of Microplastics as an Environmental Forensics Tool
5.5 Soil as a Metric for the Study of Microplastics as an Environmental Forensics Tool
5.6 Air as a Metric for the Study of Microplastics as an Environmental Forensics Tool
5.7 Forensic Techniques to Investigate Microplastic Origin
5.8 Microplastic Detection Applications in Different Fields
5.8.1 Environmental Management Systems
5.8.2 Agricultural and Geological Applications
5.8.3 Epidemiological Studies
5.8.4 Urban Development
5.8.5 Legislation
5.9 Conclusion
References
Part II: Environmental Occurrence
Chapter 6: Atmospheric Microplastic Distribution, Fate, and Behavior in Context to Pollution
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Dynamic Nature of Plastic
6.3 The Behavior of Microplastics in a Terrestrial Environment
6.4 Terrestrial Sources of Microplastics
6.4.1 Indoor Sources of Microplastic
6.4.2 Personal Care Products
6.4.3 Paints
6.4.4 Landfill
6.4.5 Tire Wear
6.4.6 City Dust
6.4.7 Agricultural
6.4.8 Industrial
6.4.9 Wastewater Treatment Facility
6.5 Ecological Impact of Microplastics
6.6 Human Health Impact of Microplastic
6.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Microplastic (MP) Pollution in the Context of Occurrence, Distribution, Composition and Concentration in Surface Waters and Sediments: A Global Overview
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Microplastic (MP) Pollution in Surface Waters
7.2.1 MP Occurrence and Distribution in Surface Waters
7.2.2 MP Composition in Surface Waters
7.2.3 MP Concentration in Surface Waters
7.3 Microplastic Pollution in the World Sediments
7.3.1 MP Occurrence and Distribution in Sediments
7.3.2 MP Composition in Sediments
7.3.3 MP Concentration in Sediments
7.4 Conclusion
References
Web
Chapter 8: Microplastic Pollution in the Black Sea: An Overview of the Current Situation
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Microplastics
8.3 The Black Sea
8.4 The Current Status of Microplastic Pollution in the Black Sea
8.5 Abundance
8.6 Sampling
8.7 Analysing
8.8 Microplastics in Marine Organisms of the Black Sea
8.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Occurrence and Fate of Microplastics in Freshwater Resources
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Basic Source of Microplastics in Freshwater
9.3 Atmospheric Microplastics as a Source of Microplastic in Water
9.3.1 Atmospheric Microplastic Accordance
9.3.2 Atmospheric Microplastic Characteristics and Sources
9.3.3 Atmospheric Microplastic Entrance to Water
9.4 Microplastics in Soil as a Source of Microplastic in Water
9.4.1 Accordance of Microplastics in Soil
9.4.2 Characteristics and Sources of Microplastics in Soil
9.4.3 Soil’s Microplastic Entrance to Water
9.5 Accordance of Microplastics in Freshwater
9.6 Characteristics of Microplastics in Freshwater
9.7 Health Problems of Microplastics in Water
9.8 Fate of Microplastics in Freshwater
9.9 Technologies for Microplastic Removal from Water
9.9.1 Microplastic Removal in Wastewater Treatment Plants
9.9.2 Membrane Filters for Microplastic Removal
9.9.3 Adsorption and Ingestion of Microplastics by Aquatic Organisms
9.9.4 Microplastic Removal by Coagulation
9.9.5 Microplastic Degradation
9.9.6 Controlling Microplastic Entrance to the Environment
9.10 Conclusions
References
Chapter 10: Occurrence of Microplastics in Freshwater
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Freshwaters
10.1.2 The Beginning of Microplastic Research in Freshwater
10.2 Microplastic Sampling and Analysis
10.2.1 Water and Sediment Sampling
10.2.2 Water and Sediment Treatment
10.2.3 Biota Sampling and Treatment
10.2.4 Chemical Characterization
10.3 Spatio-temporal Distribution of Microplastics in Freshwater
10.3.1 Spatial Occurrence of Microplastics in Water
10.3.2 Temporal Sampling of Microplastics in Waters
10.3.3 Spatial Occurrence of Microplastics in Sediment
10.3.4 Temporal Sampling of Microplastics in Sediment
10.4 Origin of Pollution
10.5 Impact of Microplastics to Freshwater Living Resources
10.5.1 Freshwater Taxa Examined by Lentic or Lotic Habitat
10.5.2 The Taxa Examined by Scientific Literature
10.5.2.1 Microorganisms
10.5.2.2 Invertebrates
10.5.2.3 Vertebrates
10.5.2.4 Plants
10.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11: Occurrence of Microplastic Pollution in Coastal Areas
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Microplastics
11.2.1 Primary Microplastics
11.2.2 Secondary Microplastics
11.3 Coastal Systems
11.4 Microplastics in Coastal Systems
11.4.1 Seagrass
11.4.2 Microplastics in the Beach Sediments
11.4.3 Microplastics in Estuary Areas
References
Chapter 12: Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Coastal Areas
12.1 Introduction
12.2 General Aspects of the Modeling of the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Coastal Environment
12.2.1 Sources and Sinks of Plastics in Coastal Areas
12.2.2 Key Processes in the Modeling of the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in the Coastal Environment
12.2.3 Type of Coastal System
12.2.4 Particle Properties
12.2.5 Fate and Transport Models in Coastal Areas
12.2.5.1 Eulerian Transport Models
12.2.5.2 Lagrangian Transport Models
12.2.5.3 Source-Pathway-Receptor-Consequence Models
12.2.5.4 Data Requirements and Tools for Numerical Simulations
12.3 Final Remarks
References
Chapter 13: Occurrence of Microplastic Pollution in Marine Water
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Microplastic
13.3 Types of Microplastic
13.3.1 Primary Microplastic
13.3.2 Secondary Microplastic
13.3.3 Nanoplastic
13.4 Sources
13.4.1 Primary Sources
13.4.2 Secondary Sources
13.4.2.1 Microplastic Dust
13.4.2.2 Water Treatment Plants
13.4.2.3 Wear and Tear from Normal Use
13.4.2.4 Secondary Microplastic
13.5 Occurrence
13.6 Proposed Solution
References
Part III: Risk Assessment and Health Impact
Chapter 14: Microplastic Pollution and Contamination of Seafood (Including Fish, Sharks, Mussels, Oysters, Shrimps and Seaweeds): A Global Overview
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Microplastics (MPs) in Seafood (Fish, Sharks, Mussels, Oysters, Clams, Prawns, Shrimps and Seaweeds): A Global Overview
14.2.1 Atlantic Ocean
14.2.1.1 MP-Contaminated Mesopelagic Marine Fishes
14.2.2 Australia
14.2.2.1 MP Contaminated Marine Fishes and Marine Prawns Including Different Trophic/Feeding Levels (Carnivores, Detrivores) and Habitats (Benthopelagic, Demersal, Reef-Associated).
14.2.3 Baltic Sea
14.2.3.1 MP Contaminated Demersal and Pelagic Marine Fishes
14.2.4 Bangladesh
14.2.4.1 MP Contaminated Benthopelagic, Demersal, Pelagic Marine Fishes and Shallow and Offshore Marine Shrimps
14.2.5 Belgium
14.2.5.1 MP Contaminated Molluscs (Mussels) and Crustaceans (Shrimps)
14.2.6 Brazil
14.2.6.1 MP Contaminated Freshwater Fishes Including Detrivores, Herbivores, Invertivores, Omnivores and Estuarine Catfishes
14.2.7 Canada
14.2.7.1 MP Contaminated Molluscs (Clams, Oysters, Farmed and Wild Blue Mussels)
14.2.8 Chile
14.2.8.1 MP Contaminated Marine and Coastal Fishes (Pelagic, Omnivore, Herbivore and Carnivore) and Crabs
14.2.9 China
14.2.9.1 MP Contaminated Seaweed, Freshwater Fishes (Benthopelagic), Seawater Fishes (Pelagic, Benthopelagic, Benthic, Demersal, Carnivore) and Mussels
14.2.10 Fiji
14.2.10.1 MP Contaminated Demersal, Benthopelagic, Reef, Carnivore and Detrivore Marine Fishes
14.2.11 France
14.2.11.1 MP Contaminated Marine and Freshwater Fishes
14.2.12 Gulf of Mexico
14.2.12.1 MP Contaminated Urbanised and Non-urbanised Fishes (Benthic, Pelagic)
14.2.13 India
14.2.13.1 MP Contaminated Marine Fishes and Mussels
14.2.14 Indonesia
14.2.14.1 Ms Contaminated Marine Fishes
14.2.15 Iran
14.2.15.1 MP Contaminated Marine Fish (Benthic, Demersal, Pelagic, Reef-Associated, Carnivores), Molluscs (Snails, Clams, Oysters) and Crustacean (Green Tiger Prawn)
14.2.16 Italy
14.2.16.1 MP Contaminated Marine Fishes (Benthopelagic, Pelagic and Benthic/Demersal
14.2.17 Japan
14.2.17.1 MP Contaminated Pelagic Marine Fish (Anchovy)
14.2.18 Malaysia
14.2.19 MP Contaminated Dried Eviscerated Fishes and Pelagic, Pelagic-Neritic, Benthopelagic Demersal Marine Fishes
14.2.20 Mediterranean Sea
14.2.20.1 MP Contaminated Marine Large Pelagic Fish
14.2.21 The Netherlands
14.2.21.1 MPs Contaminated Molluscs (Blue Mussel, Pacific Oyster, Periwinkle and Sand Hopper)
14.2.22 North Pacific Central Gyre
14.2.22.1 MP Contaminated Mesopelagic and Epipelagic Fish Species
14.2.23 North Pacific Subtropical Gyre
14.2.23.1 MP Contaminated Mesopelagic Fish Species
14.2.24 North Sea
14.2.24.1 MP Contaminated Benthopelagic, Demersal and Pelagic Marine Fishes
14.2.25 Norway
14.2.25.1 MP Contaminated Atlantic Cod Fish
14.2.26 Portugal
14.2.26.1 MP Contaminated Bathydemersal, Benthopelagic, Demersal, Pelagic-Neritic Marine Fishes and Sharks
14.2.27 Saudi Arabia
14.2.27.1 MP Contaminated Marine Fish (Coral Reef, Demersal, Pelagic and Seagrass Habitat Species)
14.2.28 Scotland
14.2.28.1 MP Contaminated Marine Fish (Coral Reef, Seagrass, Demersal and Pelagic Fish Species)
14.2.29 South Pacific Subtropical Gyre
14.2.29.1 MP Contaminated Marine Fish (Benthopelagic, Benthic and Pelagic Species)
14.2.30 Spain
14.2.30.1 MP Contaminated Marine Fish (Demersal and Pelagic Species)
14.2.31 Tanzania
14.2.31.1 MP Contaminated Freshwater Fish (Tilapia)
14.2.32 Thailand
14.2.32.1 MP Contaminated Pelagic and Demersal/Benthic Marine and Freshwater Fishes
14.2.33 Turkey
14.2.33.1 MP Contaminated Benthopelagic, Demersal, Pelagic, Pelagic-Neritic and Reef-Associated Marine Fishes
14.2.34 The United Kingdom (UK)
14.2.34.1 MP Contaminated Pelagic and Demersal Marine Fishes and Sharks
14.2.35 The United States of America (USA)
14.2.35.1 MP Contaminated Pelagic and Demersal Marine Fishes and Oysters
14.2.36 Vanuatu
14.3 Conclusion
References
Web
Chapter 15: Impacts of Plasticizers on Riverine Ecological Integrity in Context to Sustainability Challenges
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Classification of Plasticizers
15.3 Theories of Plasticization
15.3.1 Lubricity Theory
15.3.2 Gel Theory
15.3.3 Free Volume Theory
15.4 Applications of Plasticizers
15.5 Problems Associated with Plasticizers
15.6 Phthalate Esters (PAEs)
15.6.1 Metabolism of Phthalate
15.6.2 Exposure to Phthalate
15.6.3 Toxicity
15.6.4 Occurrence in Water
15.6.5 Occurrence in Sediments
15.6.6 Occurrence in Soil
15.7 Bisphenol A
15.7.1 Metabolism of BPA
15.7.2 Exposure to BPA
15.7.3 Toxicity
15.7.4 Occurrence in Water
15.7.5 Occurrence in Sediments
15.7.6 Occurrence in Soil
15.8 Disintegration of Plasticizers in Riverine Ecosystems
15.9 Worldwide Efforts to Combat the Issue
15.10 Conclusions
References
Chapter 16: Consequences of Plastic Trash on Behavior and Ecology of Birds
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Foraging Strategy and Plastic Ingestion
16.3 Plastic Incorporation in Nests and Entanglement
16.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Risk Assessment of Microplastic Pollution
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Microplastic Pollution in the Marine Ecosystem
17.2.1 Sources of MP in Marine Ecosystem
17.2.2 Occurrence of MP in Marine Ecosystem
17.2.3 Impact of MP Pollution in Marine Ecosystem
17.3 Microplastic Pollution in the Freshwater Ecosystem
17.3.1 Sources of MP in Freshwater Ecosystem
17.3.2 Occurrence of MP in Freshwater Ecosystem
17.3.3 Impact of MP Pollution in Freshwater Ecosystem
17.4 Microplastic Pollution in the Terrestrial Ecosystem
17.4.1 Sources of MP in Terrestrial Ecosystem
17.4.2 Occurrence of MP in Terrestrial Ecosystem
17.4.3 Impact of MP Pollution in Terrestrial Ecosystem
17.5 Future Perspectives
17.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 18: The Ecotoxicological Effects of Microplastics on Trophic Levels of Aquatic Ecosystems
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Environmental Fate of Microplastics in Aquatic Ecosystems
18.3 Ecotoxicity Tests and Microplastics
18.4 Factors that Affect Toxicity of Microplastics
18.4.1 Organisms in Toxicity of Microplastics
18.4.2 Exposure
18.4.2.1 Duration of Exposure
18.4.2.2 Endpoints of Exposure
18.4.2.3 Exposure Concentration
18.4.3 Physical and Chemical Properties of Microplastics
18.4.3.1 Size
18.4.3.2 Colour
18.4.3.3 Density
18.4.3.4 Microplastics Shape
18.4.3.5 Surface Charge of Microplastics
18.4.3.6 Polymer Types of Microplastics
18.5 Recommendations and Conclusion
References
Chapter 19: Ecological and Public Health Effects of Microplastics Pollution
19.1 Sources of MP Pollutants
19.2 Environmental Fate and Exposure to Humans and the Environment
19.2.1 Ingestion Pathways in Humans
19.2.2 Toxicity Profile
19.2.3 Possible Effects to Human Health
19.3 Ecological Risks Estimated from MP Exposure Data
19.4 Conclusions
References
Part IV: Treatment Technologies
Chapter 20: Microplastics as an Emerged Contaminant and Its Potential Treatment Technologies
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Microplastics Occurrence in Various Environmental Media
20.2.1 Terrestrial Media
20.2.2 Aquatic Media
20.2.3 Atmospheric Media
20.3 Microplastics in Biota
20.3.1 Fishes
20.3.2 Mollusks
20.3.3 Crustaceans
20.3.4 Other Biotic Forms
20.3.5 Other Consumables Contaminated by Microplastics
20.4 Health Impacts
20.5 Treatment Technologies
20.5.1 Landfills
20.5.2 Sewage Treatment Plants
20.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 21: Green Treatment Technologies for Microplastic Pollution
21.1 Introduction
21.1.1 Plastic Waste as a Major Problem of the Environment
21.1.2 Occurrence and Pathway of Microplastics in Environments
21.2 Microplastics, Wastewater Treatment Plants and Future Developments
21.2.1 Current Scenario on Treatment of Microplastics
21.2.2 Potential Impact of Microplastics in Nature
21.3 Green Strategies to Control Microplastics
21.3.1 Prevention of Microplastic Pollution
21.3.2 Mitigation of Microplastic Pollution
21.3.3 Removal of Microplastics
21.3.4 Physical Methods for the Removal of Microplastics
21.3.4.1 Filtration Methods
21.3.4.2 Membrane Technology
21.3.5 Biological Methods for the Subtraction of Microplastics
21.3.5.1 Biosorption of Microplastics
21.3.5.2 Microbial Degradation of Microplastics
21.3.5.3 Microbial Ingestion
21.3.5.4 Plant Uptake of Microplastics
21.3.5.5 Behavior Changes
21.3.6 Application Fields of Green Treatment Technologies for Microplastics Pollution
21.3.7 Cleaning and Remediation of the Environment
21.3.8 Environmental 4Rs Concept
21.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 22: Chemical Technologies to Degrade Microplastic Pollution
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Microplastics (MPs)
22.3 Types of Microplastic
22.3.1 Primary Microplastics
22.3.2 Secondary Microplastics
22.4 Sources of Microplastic Pollution
22.4.1 Textile Industry
22.4.2 Cosmetics and Personal Care Products
22.4.3 Wastewater Treatment Plants
22.4.4 Landfills
22.4.5 Vehicle Tire Wear
22.4.6 Paints
22.4.7 Municipal Debris
22.4.8 Fishing Waste
22.5 Impacts of Microplastic Pollution
22.5.1 Marine Environment
22.5.2 Food
22.5.3 Atmosphere
22.5.4 Soil
22.6 Chemical Technologies for the Degradation of MP Pollution
22.6.1 Advance Oxidation Processes
22.6.1.1 Photocatalysis
22.6.1.2 Photodegradation
Degradation of Polypropylene
Photodegradation of Polyethylene
22.6.1.3 Chlorination
22.6.2 Coagulation/Agglomeration
22.6.3 Electrocoagulation
22.6.4 Chemical Weathering
References
Chapter 23: Bibliometric Analysis of Emerging Trends in Research on Microplastic Pollution in Post-Paris Agreement and Post-COVID-19 Pandemic World
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Methodology for Bibliometric Analysis
23.2.1 Database Selection
23.2.2 Search Strategy to Retrieve the Required Data
23.2.3 Validation of the Search Queries for Retrieval of Relevant Articles/Documents
23.3 Results of the Bibliometric Analysis
23.3.1 Most Productive Countries in Microplastic Pollution Research
23.3.1.1 Bibliometric Analysis of the Most Productive Countries in Research on Microplastic Pollution
23.3.1.2 Bibliometric Coupling Analysis Based on Countries
23.3.1.3 Bibliographic Analysis of Country Collaboration on Microplastic Pollution
23.3.1.4 Three-Factor Analysis of Countries, Keywords, and Sources
23.3.2 The Most Productive Organizations/Institutions
23.3.2.1 Bibliometric Analysis of the Most Productive Organizations
23.3.2.2 Bibliographic Coupling Analysis Based on Organizations
23.3.3 The Most Productive Journals in Research on Microplastic Pollution
23.3.3.1 Bibliometric Analysis of Top 20 Journals Based on Published Articles on Microplastic Pollution
23.3.3.2 Bibliometric Analysis of Topmost Cited Microplastic-Related Research Documents
23.3.4 Bibliometric Analysis of Keywords, Thematic Evolution, and Factorial Analysis of Conceptual Structure
23.4 Discussion
23.5 Conclusion
References
Index