Microbial Polymers: Applications and Ecological Perspectives

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Part I: Diversity of Microbial Polymers
1: The Production and Applications of Microbial-Derived Polyhydroxybutyrates
1.1 Introduction
1.2 A Brief History of Polyhydroxybutyrates (PHBs)
1.3 Mechanism for the Biosynthesis of PHB in Microorganisms
1.4 Production of PHB
1.5 Factors Affecting the PHB Accumulation in Bacteria
1.5.1 Effect of the Bacteria Strain
1.5.2 Effect of the Carbon Source Materials
1.5.3 Effect of the Fermentation Process
1.5.4 Effect of Culture Conditions
1.6 Extraction of PHB
1.7 Applications of PHB
1.8 Conclusion
References
2: Fungal Exopolysaccharides: Types, Production and Application
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sources of Fungal Exopolysaccharides
2.2.1 Chitin/Chitosan
2.2.2 Scleroglucan
2.2.3 Schizophyllan
2.2.4 Botryosphaeran
2.2.5 Glucuronoxylomannan
2.2.6 Pullulan
2.3 Production Process of Polysaccharides from Fungi
2.3.1 Solid-State Fermentation (SSF)
2.3.2 Submersed Fermentation
2.4 Compositions of EPS Produced by Different Fungi
2.5 Parameters Affecting Polysaccharides Production
2.5.1 Nutrient Source
2.5.1.1 Nitrogen Source
2.5.1.2 Carbon Source
2.5.2 pH
2.5.3 Temperature
2.5.4 Size and Age of Fungal Inoculum
2.5.5 Fungal Material Preservation
2.5.5.1 Short-Term Preservation
2.5.5.2 Long-Term Preservation
2.5.6 Additives
2.6 Different Applications of Fungal Polysaccharides
2.7 Conclusion
References
3: Isolation and Purification of Microbial Exopolysaccharides and Their Industrial Application
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Various Exopolysaccharides
3.2.1 Xanthan
3.2.1.1 Pharmaceutical Applications
3.2.1.2 Personal Hygiene Products
3.2.1.3 Oil Industry
3.2.1.4 Food Processing Industries
3.2.1.5 Other Applications
3.2.2 Gellan
3.2.2.1 Pharmaceutical Applications
3.2.2.2 Tissue Engineering
3.2.2.3 Food Industry
3.2.3 Pullan
3.2.3.1 Food Processing Industries
3.2.4 Dextran
3.2.5 Curdlan
3.2.5.1 Food Processing Industry
3.2.5.2 Biomedical Applications
3.2.6 Levan
3.2.6.1 Tissue Engineering
3.2.6.2 Biotechnological Applications
3.2.6.3 Other Applications
3.2.7 Welan
3.2.7.1 Cement Industries
3.2.7.2 Other Applications
3.2.8 Kefiran
3.2.8.1 Food Industry
3.2.8.2 Medical Applications
3.2.9 Hyaluronan
3.2.9.1 Medical Applications
3.2.10 Alternan
3.2.11 Cellulose
3.2.11.1 Food Industry
3.3 Isolation and Purification Techniques
3.3.1 Ultracentrifugation Method
3.3.2 Ultrafiltration Method
3.3.3 Salting Out Method
3.3.4 Anion Exchange Column Chromatography
3.3.5 Affinity Chromatography
3.4 Industrial Applications of Exopolysaccharides
3.5 Conclusion
References
4: A Review on Properties and Applications of Xanthan Gum
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 History
4.1.2 Properties
4.2 Microbial Production of Xanthan Gum
4.2.1 Organism and Inoculum Preparation
4.2.2 Media Preparation
4.2.3 Fermentation
4.3 Factors Affecting Xanthan Gum Production
4.3.1 Effect of pH
4.3.2 Effect of Temperature
4.3.3 Effect of Pressure
4.3.4 Effect of Carbon Sources
4.3.5 Effect of Polymer Concentration and Salts
4.3.6 Effect of Viscosity on Xanthan Gum in the Presence of Galactomannan
4.4 Applications of Xanthan Gum
4.4.1 Pharmaceutical Applications
4.4.2 Food Industries
4.4.3 Dairy
4.4.4 Bakery Products
4.4.5 Beverages
4.4.6 Biomedical Application
4.4.7 Nanoparticle
4.4.8 Drug Delivery
4.4.9 Food Applications
4.4.10 Cosmetics
4.4.11 Oil Industry
4.5 Conclusion and Future Prospective
References
5: Biosynthesis and Characterization of Poly-(3)-hydroxyalkanoic Acid by Bacillus megaterium SF4 Using Different Carbohydrates
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Plastics
5.1.2 Poly-(3)-hydroxyalkanoic Acid: Discovery, Structure, and Classification
5.1.3 Biosynthesis of Poly-(3)-hydroxyalkanoic Acid
5.2 Materials and Methods
5.2.1 Detection of PHA Production by Isolate SF4
5.2.2 Characterization of Isolate SF4
5.2.3 Assessment of Poly-(3)-hydroxyalkanoic Acid Production
5.2.4 Extraction of PHA
5.2.5 Characterization of PHA
5.2.6 Amplification of PHA Synthases C and R Genes in Isolate SF4
5.3 Results and Discussion
5.3.1 Detection of PHA Production by Isolate SF4
5.3.2 Colonial, Morphological, Biochemical, and Molecular Characterization of Isolate SF4
5.3.3 Growth Dynamics of Isolate SF4 in Four Different Carbohydrates
5.3.4 Assessment of Dry Cell Weight and PHA Production in Four Different Carbohydrates
5.3.5 FT-IR Spectra Analysis of Extracted PHA
5.3.6 GC-MS Analysis of Extracted PHA
5.3.7 Characterization of PHA Synthase Genes
5.4 Conclusion
References
6: Mushroom Mycelia-Based Material: An Environmental Friendly Alternative to Synthetic Packaging
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Demand of Ecological Modernization in the Packaging Industry
6.1.2 Background of Bio-composite Based on Mycelium
6.1.2.1 Mycelium-Based Bio-composite?
6.2 Early Uses of Mushroom Packaging
6.3 Potential of Mycelium-Based Material as an Alternative to Synthetic Packaging Materials
6.4 Production of Mycelium-Based Material for Packaging
6.5 Mycelium Production and its Environmental Impact
6.6 Application of Mushroom Bio-composites
6.7 Conclusion
References
7: An Overview of Microbial Derived Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB): Production and Characterization
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Plastics and Problems with Plastics
7.1.2 Biodegradable Polymers
7.1.3 Biodegradable Plastics
7.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
7.2.1 Classes of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
7.3 Poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate (PHB)
7.4 PHB- producing Bacteria
7.5 Importance of PHB to Bacteria
7.6 Physical and Chemical Properties of PHB
7.7 Genes Involved in PHB Biosynthesis
7.8 Biodegradation of PHB
7.9 Identification of PHA by Staining Techniques
7.10 PHB Extraction and Recovery
7.11 Growth Parameters to Increase PHB Production
7.12 Factors Affecting PHB Production
7.12.1 Microorganisms
7.12.2 Medium
7.12.3 Fermentation
7.12.4 Recovery
7.13 PHB Quantification and Characterization
7.14 Mutagenesis
7.15 Future of PHB
7.16 Conclusion
References
8: Insight of Biopolymers and Applications of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Classification of Biopolymers
8.3 Poly(beta-, gamma-, delta-hydroxyalkanoates)
8.4 Applications
8.4.1 PHA Application
8.4.2 PHA as Packaging Materials
8.4.3 PHA as Biofuels
8.4.4 Biomedical Applicability of PHAs
8.4.4.1 Tissue Engineering
8.4.4.2 Hard Tissue
Bone
Cartilage
8.4.4.3 Soft Tissue
Cardiac Tissue Engineering
Wound Healing
8.4.4.4 PHAs for Organ Tissues
8.4.4.5 PHA for Drug Delivery Systems
8.5 Conclusion
References
9: Microbial Pigments and Their Application
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Source and Production of Microbial Pigment
9.2.1 Agri-Industrial Waste
9.2.2 Marine Source
9.2.3 Soil
9.3 Application of Microbial Pigments in Various Industries
9.4 Role of Microbial Pigments in Food Industry
9.4.1 Microbial Pigments as Food Color
9.4.2 Biopigments as Food Additive with its Antioxidant Property
9.4.3 Application in Cosmetic and Pharmaceutical Industry
9.4.4 Application in the Textile Industry
9.5 Conclusion
References
Part II: Microbial Polymers in Agriculture
10: Extracellular Polymeric Substances from Agriculturally Important Microorganisms
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria
10.3 Extracellular Polymeric Substances
10.4 Agricultural Important Roles of EPS
10.4.1 Symbiosis
10.4.2 EPS as Pathogenicity/Virulence Factors
10.4.3 Drought Stress
10.4.4 Heat Stress
10.4.5 Salt Stress
10.4.6 EPS and Soil Structure
10.5 Inoculation of EPS Producers in Crops
10.5.1 EPS Application in Agriculture
10.6 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
11: Significance of Bacterial Polyhydroxyalkanoates in Rhizosphere
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Origin of Rhizosphere
11.3 Sources of Bacterial PHA
11.3.1 Biosynthesis of PHA
11.3.2 Reduction of 3-Ketothiolase by PhaB
11.3.3 PHA Polymerization of PhaC
11.4 Properties of PHA
11.5 Types of PHA
11.6 Ecological Niche of Bacterial PHA Production
11.6.1 Hydrocarbons
11.6.2 Halophiles
11.6.3 Photosynthetic Bacteria
11.6.4 Antibiotic Factors
11.7 Bacterial PHA in Rhizosphere
11.7.1 Screening of PHA from Bacterial Sources
11.7.2 Characterization and Identification of PHA from Bacterial Sources
11.7.3 PHA Production from Bacterial Sources
11.8 Factors Affecting PHA Production
11.9 Applications of PHA
11.10 Future Prospects and Challenges
References
12: Role of Microbial Biofilms in Agriculture: Perspectives on Plant and Soil Health
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Biofilm-Producing Microbes Categorically with Special Emphasis on Agriculturally Important Microbes (AIMs)
12.3 Roles of Microbial Biofilm in Crop Protection
12.3.1 Disease and Pest Resistance
12.3.2 Protection from Abiotic Stress
12.4 Role in Soil Health
12.5 Impact on Plant Growth
12.6 Factors Affecting Biofilm Formation
12.6.1 pH
12.6.2 Temperature and Light Intensity
12.6.3 Oxygen
12.6.4 EPS
12.7 Biosafety Concern, Regulatory Mechanisms, and Use-Associated Issues
12.8 Keyword Mining
12.9 Conclusion
References
13: Biological Soil Crusts to Keep Soil Alive, Rehabilitate Degraded Soil, and Develop Soil Habitats
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Cyanobacteria and Green Algae
13.3 Mosses
13.4 Lichens
13.5 Ecological Roles of Biocrusts
13.5.1 The Role of Soil Microorganisms in Inhibiting Runoff
13.5.2 Hydrology and Available Soil Water
13.5.3 Application of EPS on Improving Soil Properties
13.5.4 Biocrust and Soil Nutrition
13.5.5 Soil Texture and Aggregate Stability
13.6 Sustainable Agriculture
13.6.1 Wastewater Treatment
13.6.2 Seed Germination and Establishment of Vegetation
13.6.3 Biofertilizer
13.6.4 Biocrusts Functions and Utility in Restoration
13.7 Conclusion
References
14: Fungal Chitosan: The Importance and Beneficiation of this Biopolymer in Industrial and Agricultural Process
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Physiological Function of Fungal Chitin and Chitosan
14.2.1 Biosynthesis of Chitin and Chitosan Biopolymers
14.2.2 Fungi Used for the Isolation of Chitin and Chitosan
14.2.3 Factors Distressing Fungal Chitin and Chitosan Conversion
14.3 Application of Chitosan in Food Industries
14.3.1 Effect of Chitosan in Bread
14.3.2 Effect of Chitosan in Fruits and Vegetables
14.3.3 Effect of Chitosan in Kimchi
14.3.4 Effect of Chitosan in Meat
14.3.5 Effect of Chitosan Added with Seafood and Seafood Products
14.4 Applications of Chitosan in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Field
14.4.1 Oral Sources of Dosage
14.4.2 Dressing of Wounds
14.4.3 Muco-Adhesive Oral
14.4.4 Adhesive for Water Resistance
14.5 Carriers for Drugs
14.5.1 Microparticles/Nanoparticles
14.5.2 Conjugates
14.5.3 Antitumor Activity
14.5.4 Enhancers for Intestinal Absorption
14.5.5 Tissue Engineering
14.5.6 Dentistry
14.5.7 Veterinary Medicine
14.5.8 Cosmetics
14.5.9 Antimicrobial Agent
14.5.10 Anticholesterolaemic Effect
14.5.11 Antioxidative Activity
14.6 Applications of Chitosan in Agriculture
14.6.1 Chitosan in Managing Plant Diseases
14.6.2 Chitin and Chitosan and Their Derivative Compounds Used for Chlorophyll Enhancement
14.6.3 Stimulating Seed Germination
14.6.4 Improve Mineral Nutrient Uptake of Plants
14.6.5 Chitosan as Soil Amendment
14.6.6 Methods of Application of Chitin, Chitosan, and the Derivatives for Agriculture
14.7 Conclusion
References
15: Role of Microbial Extracellular Polymeric Substances in Soil Fertility
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Ecological Characteristics
15.3 Impact of Extracellular Polymeric Substances on Soil Aggregation
15.3.1 Role of Microbial Population on Soil Aggregation
15.3.2 Inoculation of Extracellular Polymeric Substance Producers in Soils
15.3.3 Inoculation of Extracellular Polymeric Substance Producers in Plants
15.3.4 Inoculation of Pure Extracellular Polymeric Substance into Soil
15.4 Conclusion
References
16: Microbes Derived Exopolysaccharides Play Role in Salt Stress Alleviation in Plants
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Salinity and Crop Production
16.3 EPS and Biofilm Producing Microorganism
16.4 Chemical Structure of EPS
16.5 Biosynthesis of EPS
16.6 Inoculation of EPS Producers in Soil and Plant
16.6.1 Inoculation in Soil
16.6.2 Inoculation in Plant
16.7 Amelioration of Salt Stress by Microbes
16.8 Conclusion
16.9 Future Prospectus
References
Part III: Microbial Polymers in Industrial Sectors
17: Microbial Exopolysaccharides: Structure and Therapeutic Properties
17.1 Introduction
17.2 LAB Polysaccharides
17.3 EPSs from Marine Microbial Sources
17.4 Extremophilic Microbes as Exopolysaccharide Producers
17.5 Endophytic Fungi as EPS Producers
17.6 Some Recent Investigation on Structure and Function of EPS
17.7 Micro Algal EPS and Their Bioactivities
17.8 Medicinal/Therapeutic Applications of Exopolysaccharides
17.9 Conclusion
References
18: Microbial Biopolymers: Pharmaceutical, Medical, and Biotechnological Applications
18.1 Introduction to Biopolymers
18.2 Classification of Biopolymers
18.3 Microbial Production of Biopolymers
18.4 Microbial Biopolymers and Their Biomedical Applications
18.4.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)
18.4.2 Polylactic Acid (PLA)
18.4.3 Bacterial Cellulose (BC)
18.4.4 Kefiran
18.4.5 Levan
18.4.6 Dextran
18.4.7 Pullulan
18.4.8 Alginates (ALGs)
18.4.9 Hyaluronic Acid (HA)/Hyaluronate
18.4.10 Poly-γ-Glutamic Acid (γ-PGA)
18.4.11 Polyphosphates (PolyPs)
18.4.12 Chitin and Chitosan
References
19: Mycobacterium Biofilms Synthesis, Ultrastructure, and Their Perspectives in Drug Tolerance, Environment, and Medicine
19.1 Introduction
19.2 History of Mycobacterial Biofilms
19.3 Characteristics of Mycobacterial Biofilm
19.4 Ultrastructure of Biofilm
19.5 Resistance to Antibiotics
19.6 Mycobacterial Biofilms in the Environment
19.7 Mycobacterial Biofilms in Medicine: Clinical Implications
19.7.1 Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Disease
19.7.2 Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Disease
19.8 Infection Associated with Biofilm
19.9 Biofilm Formation by Mycobacterium smegmatis
19.10 Biofilm in Nontuberculosis Mycobacteria (NTM)
19.10.1 Mycobacterium avium
19.10.2 Mycobacterium abscessus
19.10.3 Mycobacterium fortuitum and Mycobacterium chelonae
19.10.4 Mycobacterium ulcerans
19.10.5 Mycobacterium marinum
19.11 Conclusion and Future Prospective
References
20: A Comprehensive Review on Different Microbial-Derived Pigments and Their Multipurpose Activities
20.1 Pigments, an Introduction
20.2 Microbial Pigments
20.2.1 Bacterial Pigments
20.2.1.1 Pyocyanin
20.2.1.2 Astaxanthin
20.2.1.3 Staphyloxanthin
20.2.1.4 Violacein
20.2.1.5 Prodigiosin
20.2.2 Fungal Pigments
20.2.2.1 Riboflavin
20.2.2.2 β-Carotene
20.2.2.3 Naphtoquinone
20.2.2.4 Lycopene
20.2.2.5 Benzoquinone
20.2.3 Algal Pigments
20.2.3.1 Chlorophyll
20.2.3.2 Fucoxanthin
20.2.3.3 Lutein
20.2.3.4 Phycocyanin
20.2.3.5 Phycoerythrin
20.3 Production of Microbial Pigments
20.4 Applications of Microbial Pigments
20.4.1 Textile Industry
20.4.2 Food Industry
20.4.3 Cosmetic Industry
20.4.4 Pharmaceuticals and Medicine
20.4.4.1 Antimicrobial Activity
20.4.4.2 Antioxidant Activity
20.4.4.3 Anticancer Agents
20.4.4.4 Immunosuppressive Activity
20.4.4.5 Antidiabetic Activity
20.4.4.6 Anti-adipogenic Activity
20.4.4.7 Anti-atherosclerosis Activity
20.4.4.8 Anti-inflammatory Activity
20.4.4.9 Antimalarial Activity
20.4.4.10 Anti-tuberculosis Activity
20.4.4.11 Anti-HIV Activity
20.4.4.12 Anti-Alzheimeric Activity
20.4.4.13 Anti-hypertensive Activity
20.4.4.14 Antiulcerogenic Activity
20.5 Other Applications
20.5.1 Cytotoxic Activity
20.5.2 Antifouling Activity
20.5.3 Algicidal Activity
20.5.4 Insecticidal Activity
20.5.5 Herbicidal Activity
20.5.6 Antiparasitic Activity
20.5.7 Antiprotozoal Activity
20.5.8 Antileishmanial Activity
20.5.9 Antinematodal Activity
20.5.10 Fluorescent Probes
20.6 The Road Ahead and Challenges
20.7 Conclusion
References
Websites
21: Microbial Polysaccharides with Potential Industrial Applications: Diversity, Synthesis, and Their Applications
21.1 Microbial Polysaccharides
21.2 General Polysaccharide Structure and Physical Properties
21.3 Common Metabolic Precursors
21.4 Common Analytical Techniques
21.5 Commercial Microbial Polysaccharide and Its Commercial Applications
21.5.1 Alginate
21.5.2 Dextrans
21.5.3 Gellan
21.5.4 Welan
21.5.5 Pullulan
21.5.6 Scleroglucan
21.5.7 Curdlan
21.5.8 Xanthan Gum
21.6 EPS Production Using Low-Cost Biomass Resource
21.6.1 Cost-Effective Biomass Resources
21.6.1.1 Syrups and Molasses
21.6.1.2 Sugarbeet Pulp (SBP)
21.6.1.3 Olive Mill Wastewater (OMW)
21.6.1.4 Cheese Whey
21.6.1.5 Pomace
21.6.1.6 Lignocellulosic Biomass
21.7 Biosynthesis Pathways of Microbial Polysaccharides
21.7.1 General Maneuvering for the Engineering of Bacterial Polysaccharides
21.7.1.1 Production of Exopolysaccharide via Wzx/Wzy-Dependent Pathway
21.7.1.2 The ABC Transporter Pathway
21.7.1.3 Productions of Exopolysaccharide via Synthase-Dependent Pathways
21.7.1.4 Extracellular Synthesized Polysaccharides
21.7.2 Bioengineering Strategies Towards Tailor-Made Exopolysaccharide
21.8 Conclusion
References
22: Eco-friendly Microbial Biopolymers: Recent Development, Biodegradation, and Applications
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Types of Biopolymers
22.2.1 Pullulan
22.2.2 Poly-β-Hydroxybutyrate
22.2.3 Cellulose and Its Derivatives
22.2.4 Chitin and Pectin
22.2.5 Bacterial Biopolymers
22.2.6 Polysaccharides
22.2.7 Exopolysaccharides
22.2.8 Capsular Polysaccharides
22.2.9 Polyamides and Polyesters
22.2.10 Polyanhydrides
22.3 Biosynthesis of Microbial Biopolymers
22.4 Types of Antimicrobial Groups Incorporated in Polymers
22.5 Halogen Containing Polymers
22.6 Factors Affecting the Production and Purification of Biopolymers
22.7 The Pathway Involved in Microbial Polymer
22.8 Application of Biopolymers
22.8.1 Biopolymers for Water Retention
22.8.2 Biopolymers for Soil Adhesion
22.8.3 Role of Biopolymers for Nutrient Accumulation and Vegetative Growth
22.8.4 Biopolymers for Heavy Metal Sorption
22.8.5 Role of Biopolymers in Soil Stability and Soil Structure
22.8.6 Biomedical Applications
22.8.7 Food Industry
22.9 Biodegradation of Microbial Polymers
22.10 Concluding Remarks
References
Part IV: Advances in Microbial Polymers
23: Microbial Biopolymers as an Alternative Construction Binder
23.1 Introduction
23.1.1 Alternative Binders
23.1.2 Waste Reusage
23.1.3 Biological Approaches
23.1.3.1 Microbial Induced Calcite Precipitation
23.1.3.2 Biopolymers
23.2 Common Biopolymers Used in Civil and Construction Engineering Practices
23.2.1 Xanthan Gum
23.2.2 Gellan Gum
23.2.3 Starch
23.2.4 Beta-Glucan
23.2.5 Guar Gum
23.2.6 Casein
23.3 Geotechnical Engineering Behaviors of BPST
23.3.1 Microscopic Interaction Between Biopolymers and Soil Particles
23.3.1.1 Biopolymers: Coarse Particles
23.3.1.2 Biopolymers: Clay Particles
23.3.2 Soil Consistency and Electrical Sensitivity
23.3.3 Strengthening Parameters
23.3.3.1 Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS)
23.3.3.2 Interparticle Cohesion
23.3.3.3 Dilatancy and Interparticle Friction Angle
23.3.4 Hydraulic Conductivity
23.3.5 Erosion Behavior
23.3.6 Durability
23.3.7 Vegetation Growth
23.4 BPST Implementation in Geotechnical Engineering Practices
23.4.1 Implementation Methods
23.4.1.1 Spraying: Wet and Dry
Wet Spraying
Dry Spraying
23.4.1.2 Injection: Grouting
23.4.1.3 In Situ Soil Mixing and Compaction
23.4.2 Erosion Control
23.4.3 Grouting Control and Injection
23.4.4 Vegetation Promotion and Degraded Site Recovery
23.5 Future Prospects of BPST
23.5.1 Economic Feasibility
23.5.2 Limitations and Challenges
23.6 Conclusion
References
24: Genetic Engineering Approaches for High-End Application of Biopolymers: Advances and Future Prospects
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Advancement in Genetically Engineered Biopolymers
24.2.1 Second-Generation Biopolymers
24.2.2 Genetically Engineered Proteins for Tissue Engineering
24.2.3 Genetically Engineered Elastin-Based Biopolymers
24.2.4 Genetically Engineered Human Osteoblasts Biopolymers
24.2.5 ``Bacterial Builders´´ Produce Functional Biopolymers
24.3 Approaches for the Production of Microbial Polymers
24.4 Discussion and Conclusion
24.5 Future Prospects
References
25: Microbial Pigments: Secondary Metabolites with Multifaceted Roles
25.1 Introduction
25.1.1 Brief History of Pigments
25.1.2 Why Natural Pigments over Synthetic Pigments?
25.2 Ecology of Pigmented Microorganisms
25.3 Sources of Pigments
25.3.1 Bacteria
25.3.2 Fungi
25.3.3 Yeast
25.3.4 Algae
25.4 Types of Pigments
25.4.1 Carotenoids
25.4.1.1 Astaxanthin
25.4.1.2 beta-Carotene
25.4.1.3 Canthaxanthin
25.4.2 Melanin
25.4.3 Prodigiosin
25.4.4 Phycocyanin
25.4.5 Riboflavin
25.4.6 Violacein
25.5 Applications of Microbial Pigments
25.5.1 Biological Significance
25.5.2 Microbial Pigments in Pharmacological Industries
25.5.2.1 Anticancer Potential of Bacterial Pigments
25.5.2.2 Antioxidant and Anti-hypersensitivity Activities
25.5.2.3 Antimicrobial Activities
25.5.2.4 Antifungal Activity
25.5.2.5 Immunosuppressive Activity
25.5.2.6 Anti-HIV and Anti-Alzheimer Activity
25.5.2.7 Anti-lipoperoxidant and Antiulcerogenic Activities
25.5.2.8 Anti-obesity, Anti-adipogenic, and Antidiabetic Activities
25.5.2.9 Herbicidal, Insecticidal, and Algicidal Activities
25.5.2.10 Antiviral, Antimalarial, and Antituberculosis Activities
25.5.2.11 Antiprotozoal and Antiparasitic Activities
25.5.2.12 Antileishmanial and Antitrypanosomal Activities
25.5.3 Microbial Pigments in Food Industries
25.5.4 Microbial Pigments in the Textile Industries
25.6 Conclusion and Future Prospectives
References
26: Bio-fermentative Production of Xanthan Gum Biopolymer and Its Application in Petroleum Sector
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Structure and Properties of Xanthan Gum
26.3 Bio-fermentative Production of Xanthan Gum
26.3.1 Factors Affecting the Xanthan Gum Production
26.4 Downstream Separation of Xanthan Gum
26.5 Commercial Application of Xanthan Gum
26.6 Application of Xanthan Gum in Petroleum Industries
26.7 Recent Developments and Future Scenarios
26.8 Conclusion
References
27: A Comparative Study on Biodegradable Packaging Materials: Current Status and Future Prospects
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Synthetic Packaging Materials
27.2.1 Hazards of Synthetic Packaging Materials
27.2.1.1 Unsustainability
27.2.1.2 Disposal
27.2.1.3 Environmental Pollution
27.3 Sustainable Packaging Material
27.3.1 Bioplastics
27.3.1.1 Polylactic Acid Polymer
27.3.1.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
27.3.1.3 Starch
27.3.1.4 Cellulose
27.3.1.5 Chitin/Chitosan-Based Films
27.4 Mushrooms
27.4.1 Morphology of Fungal Mycelium
27.4.2 Mushroom-Based Packaging Materials
27.4.2.1 Raw Materials
27.4.2.2 Production Protocol
27.4.2.3 Mushroom-Based Foams
27.4.2.4 Properties of MBFs
27.4.2.5 What Makes MBFs Advantageous?
27.4.2.6 Multi-Facetted Applications of Mycelium-Based Foams
27.5 Future
27.6 Conclusion
References
28: Environmental Implications of Microbial Bioplastics for a Sustainable Future
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Microbial Bioplastics
28.3 Different Types of Bioplastics
28.3.1 Starch-Based Bioplastics
28.3.1.1 Biopolymers from Gases
28.3.2 Microbial Bioplastics
28.3.2.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
28.4 Synthesis and Degradation of Microbial Bioplastics
28.5 Parameters Affecting Bioplastic Production
28.6 Biodegradation of Bioplastics in Different Natural Environments
28.7 Challenges and Environmental Impacts of Microbial Bioplastics
28.8 Future Prospects and Possibilities
28.9 Conclusions
References