Messengers from the Cosmos: An Introduction to the Physics of Cosmic Rays in Its Historical Evolution

Preface
Contents
1 The Discovery of the Cosmic Radiation
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Terrestrial Radioactivity and First Experiences with Electroscopes
1.3 Investigations in the Atmosphere
1.4 Victor Hess and the Evidence for an Extraterrestrial Radiation
1.5 Towards a Confirmation of Hess’s Results
2 Confirmation of the Existence of a Cosmic Radiation
2.1 Further Investigations in Europe During and After the First World War
2.2 Robert Millikan and the First American Contributions to Cosmic Ray Physics
2.3 The Acceptance of the Idea of a Cosmic Radiation
3 The Nature of the Cosmic Radiation
3.1 The Influence of the Earth’s Magnetic Field
3.2 Campaigns for Measuring the Intensity of the Cosmic Radiation in Various Geographical Locations
3.3 The Debate on the Corpuscular or Radiative Nature of the Cosmic Radiation
3.4 Further Contributions in Europe and Other Countries for Understanding the Nature of the Cosmic Radiation
3.5 Protons as an Essential Component of Primary Radiation?
4 New Particles and Their Links with the Cosmic Radiation
4.1 The Discovery of New Particles and the Links with the Understanding of Cosmic Radiation
4.2 Properties of μ-Mesons
4.3 The Discovery of the Pion
4.4 The Discovery of the Neutron
5 Developments of the Techniques for the Detection of Cosmic Rays
5.1 Introduction
5.2 From Wulf's Electroscopes to Automatic Recording Equipment
5.3 Ionization Chambers
5.4 Proportional Counters
5.5 Wilson Cloud Chamber
5.6 Geiger-Müller Counters
5.7 Electronics and Coincidence Techniques
5.8 Nuclear Emulsions
5.9 Detectors Based on Scintillators
6 The Interaction of Primary Cosmic Rays in the Atmosphere
6.1 The First Evidence of Nuclear Interactions of Cosmic Rays
6.2 Interactions in the Atmosphere and First Evidence of a Complex Primary Radiation
6.3 Production of Other Particles in Nuclear Interactions
6.4 The Role of High-Altitude Laboratories
7 Extensive Air Showers
7.1 Secondary Processes and Local Showers
7.2 First Evidence of the Existence of Atmospheric Showers
7.3 An “Operational” Definition and the First Properties of Extensive Air Showers
7.4 Towards a More Complete Description of the Formation of Extensive Air Showers
7.5 The Study of Atmospheric Showers Since the 1940s
7.6 The Longitudinal Development of an Extensive Air Shower
7.7 The Transverse Development of an Extensive Air Shower
7.8 The Time Profile of an Extensive Air Shower
8 The Detection of Extensive Air Showers
8.1 Direct and Indirect Methods
8.2 Arrays of Particle Detectors
8.3 Detector Arrays Based on the Cherenkov Effect
8.4 Fluorescence Detectors
8.5 Detection of Radio Waves Associated with Extensive Air Showers
8.6 An Example of Reconstruction of Extensive Air Showers in the 1950s
8.7 Arrays for the Reconstruction of Extensive Air Showers
9 The Primary Cosmic Radiation
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The Hadronic Component and the Energy Spectrum
9.3 Composition of the Hadronic Component
9.4 Electrons and Positrons
9.5 Other Components in the Primary Radiation
9.6 The Intensity of the Primary Radiation at Different Altitudes
9.7 Possible Anisotropy Effects in the Primary Radiation
10 The Secondary Cosmic Radiation
10.1 Composition of the Secondary Radiation
10.2 Muons
10.3 Electrons
10.4 Gammas
10.5 Charged Hadrons
10.6 Neutrons
10.7 Nuclei
11 The Influence of the Earth
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The Interaction with the Atmosphere and Meteorological Effects
11.3 The Influence of the Earth Magnetic Field
11.4 Angular Distribution of Muons and the East–West Effect
11.5 The Latitude Effect
11.6 Other Influences on the Cosmic Ray Flux Due to the Earth Environment
12 The Secondary Cosmic Radiation and the Influence of the Sun
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Periodic Phenomena in the Sun and Solar Cycles
12.3 Modulation of the Cosmic Ray Flux Due to the Sun
12.4 Forbush Variations
12.5 Other Effects Related to Solar Activity
13 Interaction of Muons with Matter
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Energy Loss of Muons
13.3 Range of Muons in Matter
13.4 Multiple Scattering
14 Cosmic Radiations Underground, Under Water and Under the Ice
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Underground Measurements
14.3 Measurements Underwater and Under the Ice
15 The Origin of Cosmic Rays
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Some Historical Considerations About the Acceleration Mechanisms and the Origin of Cosmic Rays
15.3 Fermi Acceleration Mechanism
15.4 The Role of Supernovae
15.5 The High-Energy Extragalactic Component
16 The Impact of Cosmic Rays in Applications and in Daily Life
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Production of Radioactive Isotopes by Cosmic Rays and Dating Techniques
16.3 Cosmic Ray Dating Outside the Earth
16.4 The Radiation Dose Produced by Cosmic Rays on Earth and in the Solar System
16.5 Electronics and the Effect of Cosmic Radiations
16.6 Muons and the Origin of Tomographic Techniques
16.7 Tomographic Techniques Based on Cosmic Muon Absorption
16.8 Muon Tomography and Scattering from High-Z Materials
16.9 Imaging Techniques Based on Secondary Particle Production
16.10 Monitoring of the Stability of Buildings by Tracking Cosmic Muons
16.11 Additional Possible Applications of Muon Tomography
16.12 The Impact of Cosmic Rays on Cloud Formation
16.13 Use of Extensive Air Showers in Time Synchronization
Appendix A A Calculation of the Flux at the Top of the Eiffel Tower Due to Soil Radioactivity
Appendix B The Absorption Coefficient in Water and the Directionality of Cosmic Rays
Appendix C Geographic and Geomagnetic Latitude
Appendix D The Magnetic Rigidity of Particles
Appendix E The Energy Loss of Charged Particles and the Estimate of the Muon Mass
Appendix F List of High-Altitude Observation Stations in the Mid-1950s
Appendix G An Estimate of the Particle Density in an Extensive Air Shower
Appendix H The Relationship Between Altitude and Atmospheric Depth
Appendix I Gaisser-Hillas Parameterization of the Longitudinal Profile of a Shower
Appendix J The Thickness of Air Crossed by a Particle in the Atmosphere
Appendix K Evaluation of the Shower Direction from the Relative Timing of Several Detectors
Appendix L Parameterizations of the Muon Spectrum at Sea Level
Appendix M The Flux of Underground Muons
Appendix N Detection of Bit-Flip Errors Originated by Cosmic Rays
Notes to the Bibliography
Bibliography