Materials for Hydrogen Production, Conversion, and Storage

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 Transition Metal Oxides in Solar-to-Hydrogen Conversion
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Solar-to-Hydrogen Conversion Processes Utilizing Transition Metal Oxides
1.2.1 Photocatalysis
1.2.2 Photoelectrocatalysis
1.2.3 Thermochemical Water Splitting
1.3 Transition Metal Oxides in Solar-to-Hydrogen Conversion Processes
1.3.1 Photocatalysis and Photoelectrocatalysis
1.3.1.1 TiO2
1.3.1.2 α-Fe2O3
1.3.1.3 CuO/Cu2O
1.3.2 Thermochemical Water Splitting
1.3.2.1 Fe3O4/FeO Redox Pair
1.3.2.2 CeO2/Ce2O3 and CeO/CeO2-ä Redox Pairs
1.3.2.3 ZnO/Zn Redox Pair
1.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 2 Catalytic Conversion Involving Hydrogen from Lignin
List of Abbreviations
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Background of Bio-Refinery and Lignin
2.1.2 Lignin as an Alternate Source of Energy
2.1.3 Lignin Isolation Process
2.2 Catalytic Conversion of Lignin
2.2.1 Lignin Reductive Depolymerization into Aromatic Monomers
2.2.2 Catalytic Hydrodeoxydation (HDO) of Lignin
2.2.3 Hydrodeoxydation (HDO) of Lignin-Derived-Bio-Oil
Summary and Outlook
References
Chapter 3 Solar–Hydrogen Coupling Hybrid Systems for Green Energy
3.1 Concept of Green Sources and Green Storage
3.2 Coupling of Green to Green
3.3 Solar Energy–Hydrogen System
3.3.1 Photoelectrochemical Hydrogen Production
3.3.1.1 PEC Materials
3.3.1.2 Photoelectrochemical Systems
3.3.2 Electrochemical Hydrogen Production
3.3.2.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Electrolysis Cell (PEMEC)
3.3.2.2 Alkaline Electrolysis Cell (AEC)
3.3.2.3 Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell (SOEC)
3.3.3 Fuel Cell
3.3.4 Photovoltaic
3.4 Thermochemical Systems
3.5 Photobiological Hydrogen Production
3.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4 Green Sources to Green Storage on Solar–Hydrogen Coupling
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Hybrid System
4.2 Concentrated Solar Thermal H2 Production
4.3 Thermochemical Aqua Splitting Technology for Solar–H2 Generation
4.4 Solar to Hydrogen Through Decarbonization of Fossil Fuels
4.4.1 Solar Cracking
4.5 Solar Thermal-Based Hydrogen Generation Through Electrolysis
4.6 Photovoltaics-Based Hydrogen Production
4.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5 Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Parameters to Evaluate Efficient HER Catalysts
5.2.1 Overpotential (o.p)
5.2.2 Tafel Plot
5.2.3 Stability
5.2.4 Faradaic Efficiency and Turnover Frequency
5.2.5 Hydrogen Bonding Energy (HBE)
5.3 Categories of HER Catalysts
5.3.1 Noble Metal-Based Catalysts
5.3.2 Non-Noble Metal-Based Catalysts
5.3.3 Metal-Free 2D Nanomaterials
5.3.4 Transition Metal Dichalcogenides
5.3.5 Transition Metal Oxides and Hydroxides
5.3.6 Transition Metal Phosphides
5.3.7 MXenes (Transition Metal Carbides and Nitrides)
Conclusion
References
Chapter 6 Recent Progress on Metal Catalysts for Electrochemical Hydrogen Evolution
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Type of Water Electrolysis Technologies
6.1.1.1 Alkaline Electrolysis (AE)
6.1.1.2 Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolysis (PEME)
6.1.1.3 Solid Oxide Electrolysis (SOE)
6.2 Mechanism of Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER)
6.2.1 Performance Evaluation of Catalyst
6.3 Various Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER)
6.3.1 Noble Metal Catalysts for HER
6.3.1.1 Platinum-Based Catalysts
6.3.1.2 Palladium Based Catalysts
6.3.1.3 Ruthenium Based Catalysts
6.3.2 Non-Noble Metal Catalysts
6.3.2.1 Transition Metal Phosphides (TMP)
6.3.2.2 Transition Metal Chalcogenides
6.3.2.3 Transition Metal Carbides (TMC)
6.4 Conclusion and Future Aspects
References
Chapter 7 Dark Fermentation and Principal Routes to Produce Hydrogen
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Biohydrogen Production from Organic Waste
7.2.1 Crude Glycerol
7.2.1.1 Dark Fermentation of Crude Glycerol to Biohydrogen and Bio Products
7.2.2 Dairy Waste
7.2.2.1 Dark Fermentation of Dairy Waste to Biohydrogen and Bioproducts
7.2.3 Fruit Waste
7.2.3.1 Dark Fermentation of Fruit Waste to Hydrogen and Bioproducts
7.3 Anaerobic Systems
7.3.1 Continuous Multiple Tube Reactor
7.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 8 Catalysts for Electrochemical Water Splitting for Hydrogen Production
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Water Splitting and Their Products
8.3 Different Methods Used for Water Splitting
8.3.1 Setup for Water Splitting Systems at a Basic Level
8.3.2 Photocatalysis
8.3.3 Electrolysis
8.4 Principles of PEC and Photocatalytic H2 Generation
8.5 Electrochemical Process for Water Splitting Application
8.5.1 Water Splitting Through Electrochemistry
8.6 Different Materials Used in Water Splitting
8.6.1 Water Oxidation (OER) Materials
8.6.2 Developing Materials for Hydrogen Synthesis
8.6.3 Material Stability for Water Splitting
8.7 Mechanism of Electrochemical Catalysis in Water Splitting and Hydrogen Production
8.7.1 Electrochemical Water Splitting with Cheap Metal-Based Catalysts
8.7.2 Catalysts with Only One Atom
8.7.3 Electrochemical Water Splitting Using Low-Cost Metal-Free Catalysts
8.8 Water Splitting and Hydrogen Production Materials Used in Electrochemical Catalysis
8.8.1 Metal and Alloys
8.8.2 Metal Oxides/Hydroxides and Chalogenides
8.8.3 Metal Carbides, Borides, Nitrides, and Phosphides
8.9 Uses of Hydrogen Produced from Water Splitting
8.9.1 Water Splitting Generates Hydrogen Energy
8.9.2 Photoelectrochemical (PEC) Water Splitting
8.9.3 Thermochemical Water Splitting
8.9.4 Biological Water Splitting
8.9.5 Fermentation
8.9.6 Biomass and Waste Conversions
8.9.7 Solar Thermal Water Splitting
8.9.8 Renewable Electrolysis
8.9.9 Hydrogen Dispenser Hose Reliability
8.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9 Challenges and Mitigation Strategies Related to Biohydrogen Production
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Limitation and Mitigation Approaches of Biohydrogen Production
9.2.1 Physical Issues and Their Mitigation Approaches
9.2.1.1 Operating Temperature Issue and Its Control
9.2.1.2 Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) and Optimization
9.2.1.3 High Hydrogen Partial Pressure – Implication and Overcoming the Issue
9.2.1.4 Membrane Fouling Issues and Solutions
9.2.2 Biological Issues and Their Mitigation Approaches
9.2.2.1 Start-Up Issue and Improvement Through Bioaugmentation
9.2.2.2 Biomass Washout Issue and Solution Through Cell Immobilization
9.2.3 Chemical Issues and Their Mitigation Approaches
9.2.3.1 pH Variation and Its Regulation
9.2.3.2 Limiting Nutrient Loading and Optimization
9.2.3.3 Inhibitor Secretion and Its Control
9.2.3.4 Byproduct Formation and Its Exploitation
9.2.4 Economic Issues and Ways to Optimize Cost
9.3 Conclusion and Future Direction
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 10 Continuous Production of Clean Hydrogen from Wastewater by Microbial Usage
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Wastewater for Biohydrogen Production
10.3 Photofermentation
10.3.1 Continuous Photofermentation
10.3.2 Factors Affecting Photofermentation Hydrogen Production
10.3.2.1 Inoculum Condition and Substrate Concentration
10.3.2.2 Carbon and Nitrogen Source
10.3.2.3 Temperature
10.3.2.4 pH
10.3.2.5 Light Intensity
10.3.2.6 Immobilization
10.4 Dark Fermentation
10.4.1 Continuous Dark Fermentation
10.4.2 Factors Affecting Hydrogen Production in Continuous Dark Fermentation
10.4.2.1 Start-Up Time
10.4.2.2 Organic Loading Rate
10.4.2.3 Hydraulic Retention Time
10.4.2.4 Temperature
10.4.2.5 pH
10.4.2.6 Immobilization
10.5 Microbial Electrolysis Cell
10.5.1 Mechanism of Microbial Electrolysis Cell
10.5.2 Wastewater Treatment and Hydrogen Production
10.5.3 Factors Affecting Microbial Electrolysis Cell Performance
10.5.3.1 Inoculum
10.5.3.2 pH
10.5.3.3 Temperature
10.5.3.4 Hydraulic Retention Time
10.5.3.5 Applied Voltage
10.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 11 Conversion Techniques for Hydrogen Production and Recovery Using Membrane Separation
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Conversion Technique for Hydrogen Production
11.2.1 Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation via Particulate System
11.2.2 Photoelectrochemical Cell (PEC)
11.2.3 Photovoltaic-Photoelectrochemical Cell (PV-PEC)
11.2.4 Electrolysis
11.3 Hydrogen Recovery Using Membrane Separation (H2/O2 Membrane Separation)
11.3.1 Polymeric Membranes
11.3.2 Porous Membranes
11.3.3 Dense Metal Membranes
11.3.4 Ion-Conductive Membranes
11.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 12 Geothermal Energy-Driven Hydrogen Production Systems
Abbreviations
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Hydrogen – A Green Fuel and an Energy Carrier
12.3 Production of Hydrogen
12.3.1 Fossil Fuel-Based
12.3.2 Non-Fossil Fuel-Based
12.4 Geothermal Energy
12.4.1 Introductory View
12.4.2 Types and Occurrences
12.5 Hydrogen Production From Geothermal Energy
12.5.1 Hydrogen Production Systems
12.5.2 Working Fluids
12.5.3 Assimilation of Solar and Geothermal Energy
12.5.4 Chlor-Alkali Cell and Abatement of Mercury and Hydrogen Sulfide (AMIS) Unit
12.5.5 Hydrogen Liquefaction
12.5.6 Hydrogen Storage
12.6 Economics of Hydrogen Production
12.6.1 A General Overview
12.6.2 Economy of Hydrogen Yield Using Geothermal Energy
12.7 Environmental Impressions of Geothermal Energy-Driven Hydrogen Yield
12.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 13 Heterogeneous Photocatalysis by Graphitic Carbon Nitride for Effective Hydrogen Production
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Typical Heterogeneous Photocatalysis Mechanism
13.1.2 Necessity of the Photocatalytic Water Splitting
13.2 g-C3N4-Based Photocatalytic Water Splitting
13.2.1 Influence of the g-C3N4 Morphology on Photocatalytic Water Splitting
13.2.1a g-C3N4 Thin Nanosheets-Based Photocatalytic Water Splitting
13.2.1b Porous g-C3N4-Based Photocatalytic Water Splitting
13.2.1c Crystalline g-C3N4-Based Photocatalytic Water Splitting
13.2.2 Metal Doped Photocatalytic Water Splitting
13.2.3 Semiconductor/g-C3N4 Heterojunction for Photocatalytic Water Splitting
13.3 Future Remarks and Conclusion
References
Chapter 14 Graphitic Carbon Nitride (g-CN) for Sustainable Hydrogen Production
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Various Methods for Hydrogen Production
14.3 Production of Hydrogen from Fossil Fuels
14.3.1 Steam Reforming
14.3.2 Gasification
14.4 Hydrogen Production from Nuclear Energy
14.4.1 Water Splitting by Thermochemistry
14.5 Hydrogen Production from Renewable Energies
14.5.1 Electrolysis
14.5.2 Photovoltaic Solar
14.5.3 Wind Method for Producing Hydrogen
14.5.4 Biomass Gasification Use for Hydrogen Production
14.5.5 Agricultural or Food-Processing Waste that Contains Starch and Cellulose
14.6 Preparation of g-C3N4 Materials
14.6.1 Sol-Gel Method for Making Graphitic Carbon Nitride
14.6.2 Hard and Soft-Template Method
14.6.3 Template-Free Method for Making Graphitic Carbon Nitride
14.7 Properties of g-C3N4 Materials
14.7.1 Stability
14.7.1.1 Thermal Stability
14.7.1.2 Chemical Stability
14.7.1.3 Electrochemical Properties
14.8 The Advantages of Sustainable Hydrogen Production and Their Applications
14.8.1 Hydrogen Applications
14.9 Hydro Processing in Petroleum Refineries and Their Usage
14.9.1 Hydrocracking
14.9.2 Hydrofining
14.9.3 Ammonia Synthesis
14.9.4 Synthesis of Methanol
14.9.5 Electricity Generation from Hydrogen
14.9.6 Applications for Green Hydrogen
14.9.7 Replacing Existing Hydrogen
14.9.8 Heating
14.9.9 Energy Storage
14.9.10 Alternative Fuels
14.9.11 Fuel-Cell Vehicles
14.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15 Hydrogen Production from Anaerobic Digestion
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Basic Overview of Anaerobic Digestion
15.3 How to Obtain Hydrogen from Anaerobic Digestion
15.3.1 Single-Stage Reactor
15.3.2 Two-Stage Reactor
15.3.3 Feedstock and Resulting Hydrogen
15.4 Challenges and Mitigation Strategies in Biohydrogen Production
15.4.1 Combating Microbial Competition
15.4.2 Enhancing Biohydrogen Production Yield by Technical and Operational Adjustments
15.4.3 Minimizing Inhibition by Byproducts from Pretreatments
15.4.4 Minimizing Inhibition by Metal Ions
15.4.5 Minimizing In-Process Inhibition
15.4.5.1 Volatile Fatty Acids and Alcohols
15.4.5.2 Ammonia
15.4.5.3 Hydrogen
15.5 Practicality of Technologies at Industrial Scale
15.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 16 Impact of Treatment Strategies on Biohydrogen Production from Waste-Activated Sludge Fermentation
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Methods of Production of Hydrogen Using WAS
16.2.1 Dark Fermentation
16.2.2 Photofermentation
16.2.3 Microbial Electrolysis Cell
16.3 Physical Treatment Methods
16.4 Chemical Treatment Methods
16.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 17 Microbial Production of Biohydrogen (BioH2) from Waste-Activated Sludge: Processes, Challenges, and Future Approaches
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Hydrogen and Waste-Activated Sludge
17.2.1 Hydrogen
17.2.2 Waste-Activated Sludge
17.3 Mechanisms of Hydrogen Production
17.3.1 H2 Production by Dark Fermentation Process
17.3.2 H2 Production by Photofermentation Process
17.3.3 Using Microbial Electrolysis Cell
17.4 H2 Production by Microalgae Using Waste
17.4.1 Bottlenecks of H2 Production
17.4.2 Key Factors Influencing H2 Production
17.5 Recent Endeavors to Enhance H2 Production
17.5.1 Recent Advancements in Dark Fermentation
17.5.2 Recent Advances in Photofermentation
17.5.3 Recent Advances in Microbial Electrolysis Cell
17.6 Future Approaches
17.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 18 Perovskite Materials for Hydrogen Production
18.1 Current Problems of Technology for Hydrogen Production
18.2 Principle of Perovskite Materials
18.2.1 Oxide Perovskite
18.2.1.1 Titanate-Based Oxide Perovskite (ATiO3)
18.2.1.2 Tantalate-Based Oxide Perovskite (ATaO3)
18.2.1.3 Niobate-Based Oxide Perovskite
18.2.2 Halide Perovskite
18.2.2.1 Conventional Halide Perovskite
18.2.2.2 Lead-Free Halide Perovskites
18.3 Synthesis Process for Perovskite Materials
18.3.1 Microwaves
18.3.2 Sol-Gel
18.3.3 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal
18.3.4 Precipitation
18.3.5 Hot-Injection
18.4 Hydrogen Production from Solar Water Splitting
18.4.1 Photocatalytic System
18.4.2 Photoelectrochemical System
18.4.3 Photovoltaic–Electrocatalytic System
18.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 19 Progress on Ni-Based as Co-Catalysts for Water Splitting
19.1 Introduction
19.1.1 Thermodynamic Aspects of Hydrogen Production
19.1.2 Different Processes for the Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution by Water Splitting
19.1.3 Photocatalyst
19.1.3.1 Homogeneous Photocatalysis
19.1.3.2 Heterogeneous Photocatalysis
19.2 Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation System
19.2.1 Electron Donor and Electrolyte/Sacrificial Reagent
19.2.2 Loading of Co-Catalyst
19.2.3 Photocatalytic Activity Efficiency
19.3 Semiconductor Materials
19.3.1 Oxide-Based Semiconductor and Their Composites
19.3.2 Non-Oxide-Based Semiconductor and Their Composites
19.3.3 Polymer/Carbon Dots/Graphene-Based and Carbon Nitride-Based Photocatalyst and Their Composites
19.4 State of Art for the Nickel Used as Photocatalyst
19.5 Progress of Ni-Based Photocatalyst for Hydrogen Evolution
19.5.1 Metallic Form of Ni Used as Co-Catalyst
19.5.2 Ni-Based Oxide and Hydroxide Used as Co-Catalyst for Hydrogen Production
19.5.3 Ni-Based Sulfides Used as Co-Catalyst and Photocatalyst
19.5.4 Ni-Based Phosphides Used as Co-Catalyst Towards Hydrogen Production
19.5.5 Ni-Based Complex Act as Co-Catalyst for Hydrogen Production
19.5.6 Other Ni-Based Co-Catalyst for Hydrogen Production
19.6 Conclusion and Future Perspective
Author Declaration
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 20 Use of Waste-Activated Sludge for the Production of Hydrogen
20.1 Introduction
20.2 WAS to Hydrogen Production
20.2.1 Biohydrogen Production
20.2.1.1 Dark Fermentation
20.2.1.2 Photofermentation
20.2.1.3 Microbial Electrolysis Cell
20.2.2 Thermochemical Hydrogen Production
20.2.2.1 Pyrolysis
20.2.2.2 Gasification
20.2.2.3 Super Critical Water Gasification
20.3 Conclusion Remarks
References
Chapter 21 Current Trends in the Potential Use of the Metal-Organic Framework for Hydrogen Storage
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Structure of MOFs
21.3 Mechanism of H2 Storage by MOFs
21.4 Strategies to Modify the Structure of MOFs for Enhanced H2 Storage
21.4.1 Tuning the Surface Area, Pore Size, and Volume of MOFs
21.4.2 Enhancement in Unsaturated Open Metal Sites
21.4.3 MOFs with Interpenetration
21.4.4 Linker Functionalization of MOFs
21.4.5 Hybrid and Doping of MOFs
21.5 Conclusions and Future Recommendations
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 22 High-Density Solids as Hydrogen Storage Materials
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Metal Borohydrides
22.2.1 Lithium Borohydride
22.2.2 Sodium Borohydride
22.2.3 Potassium Borohydride
22.3 Metal Alanates
22.3.1 Lithium Alanate
22.3.2 Sodium Alanate
22.4 Ammonia Boranes
22.5 Metal Amides
22.5.1 Lithium Amide
22.5.2 Sodium Amide
22.6 Amine Metal Borohydrides
22.6.1 Amine Lithium Borohydrides
22.6.2 Amine Magnesium Borohydrides
22.6.3 Amine Calcium Borohydrides
22.6.4 Amine Aluminium Borohydrides
22.7 Conclusion
References
Index
EULA