Marine Antioxidants: Preparations, Syntheses, and Applications

Front Cover
Marine Antioxidants
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
1 Marine-derived antioxidant peptides: properties and applications
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Structure and antioxidant properties of marine peptides
1.2.1 Primary structure and antioxidant properties
1.2.2 Secondary structure and antioxidant properties
1.3 Applications of marine-derived antioxidant peptides
1.3.1 Food applications of marine antioxidant peptides
1.3.2 Nutritional/physiological applications of marine antioxidant peptides
1.4 Conclusions
References
2 Antioxidant properties of marine proteins and peptides
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sources of antioxidant peptides from marine life
2.3 Mechanism of antioxidant potential of marine peptides
2.3.1 The Antioxidant activity and peptide characteristics relationship
2.3.1.1 The amino acid composition
2.3.1.2 Molecular weights of peptides
2.3.1.3 Degree of hydrolysis
2.3.1.4 Amino acid configuration and peptide conformation
2.4 Production and isolation of antioxidant peptides
2.4.1 Production of antioxidant peptides using enzyme hydrolysis
2.4.2 Antioxidant peptide purification and identification
2.5 Antioxidant potential analysis of marine peptides and proteins
2.5.1 DPPH radical-scavenging assay
2.5.2 Hydroxyl radical scavenging
2.5.3 Superoxide anion radical analysis
2.5.4 Linoleic acid autoxidation inhibition activity
2.5.5 Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity assay
2.6 Applications of marine antioxidant proteins and peptides
2.7 Conclusion
References
3 Implications of bioprospecting marine diversity and sustainable production of bioactive compounds
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Bioprospecting marine natural products
3.2.1 Role of marine species
3.2.2 Properties of bioactive compounds
3.3 Industrial applications of marine biotechnology
3.3.1 Antitumor compounds
3.3.2 Antivirals
3.3.3 Analgesic
3.3.4 Enzyme inhibitors
3.3.5 Nontoxic antifouling agents
3.4 Innovative technologies for isolating novel products
3.4.1 Metagenomic approaches
3.4.2 DNA-sequencing and bioinformatic technologies
3.4.3 Spectroscopic techniques: two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and mass spectroscopy
3.4.4 Aquaculture and fermenter cultivation techniques
3.5 Advances in biotechnology approaches
3.6 Challenges in producing and isolating marine natural products
3.7 Future perspective
References
4 Antioxidants obtained from marine sources
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Antioxidants
4.2 Marine organisms: a potential source of antioxidative molecules
4.2.1 Algae
4.2.1.1 Astaxanthin
4.2.1.2 Eckol and dieckol
4.2.1.3 Scytonemin
4.2.1.4 Ulvan
4.2.2 Sponges
4.2.2.1 Aaptamine and isoaaptamine
4.2.2.2 5-Hydroxytryptophan
4.2.2.3 Puupehenone
4.2.3 Mussels
4.2.4 Sea cucumber
4.3 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
Conflict of Interest
Funding
Consent for Publication
References
5 Antioxidant potential of bioactive molecules from marine algae in chronic diseases: a critical review of antioxidants fro...
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Seaweed resources internationally and nationally
5.3 Oxidative stress and disease pathologies
5.4 Antioxidant molecules from marine algae
5.4.1 Polyphenols in seaweeds
5.4.2 Polysaccharides in seaweeds
5.4.3 Fatty acids in seaweeds
5.4.4 Terpenoids in seaweeds
5.5 Mechanism of mitigating oxidative stress by algal antioxidants in chronic diseases
5.6 Seaweed antioxidants for management of cancer
5.6.1 Seaweed antioxidants in the management of diabetes
5.6.2 Seaweed antioxidants in the management of cardiovascular disease
5.7 Seaweed antioxidants in the management of arthritis
5.8 Nanotechnology and marine-derived metabolites in mitigation of oxidative stress
5.8.1 Drawbacks of marine metabolites in mitigating oxidative stress–induced diseases
5.8.2 Applications of marine polysaccharide nanoparticles in circumventing oxidative stress–induced diseases
5.9 Future perspectives and challenges
5.10 Conclusion
References
6 Supercritical extraction of marine antioxidants
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Major marine carotenoids
6.3 Carotenoids as antioxidants
6.4 Supercritical fluid extraction, fundamentals, and operational conditions
6.4.1 Initial pretreatment of the solid
6.4.2 Pressure and temperature
6.4.3 Modifier
6.4.4 Flow rate
6.5 Applications
6.5.1 Sequential valorization biorefinery
6.6 Concluding remarks
References
7 The role of antioxidant enzymes in diatoms and their therapeutic role
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Diatoms and their role in the environment
7.2.1 Role of diatoms in biomineralization
7.2.2 Role of diatoms in biomaterial synthesis
7.2.3 Role of diatoms in the degradation of waste
7.2.4 Role of diatoms in aquaculture feed
7.2.5 Role of diatoms in biofuel production
7.2.6 Role of diatoms in producing other valuable products
7.3 Antioxidants and their role in diatoms
7.4 Diatom antioxidative enzymes
7.4.1 Catalase
7.4.2 Superoxide dismutase
7.4.3 Peroxidase
7.4.4 Glutathione peroxidase
7.4.5 Ascorbate peroxidase
7.4.6 Glutathione reductase
7.5 Effect of different environmental stressors (biotic and abiotic) on enzymatic response
7.5.1 Light
7.5.2 Temperature
7.5.3 Ice cover
7.5.4 Chemical pollutants
7.5.5 Salinity
7.5.6 Nutrient starvation
7.6 Mechanism of antioxidative enzyme action
7.7 Therapeutic potential and other applications of antioxidative enzymes
7.8 Other antioxidants (nonenzymatic)
7.8.1 Exogenous nonenzymatic antioxidants
7.8.1.1 Vitamin E
7.8.1.2 Vitamin A
7.8.1.3 Vitamin C
7.8.1.4 Flavonoids
7.8.1.5 Carotenoids
7.8.1.6 Hydroxycinnamic acids
7.8.1.7 Allyl sulfides and curcumin
7.8.2 Endogenous nonenzymatic antioxidants
7.8.2.1 Uric acid
7.8.2.2 Glutathione
7.8.2.3 Melatonin
7.8.2.4 Bilirubin
7.8.2.5 Polyamines
7.9 Applications of diatom antioxidants
7.9.1 Role of nonenzymatic antioxidants
7.9.2 Role of enzymatic antioxidants
7.10 Future prospects
7.11 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Further reading
8 Antioxidants from marine cyanobacteria
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Natural production of antioxidants in cyanobacteria
8.3 Antioxidant molecules in cyanobacteria
8.3.1 Chlorophyll
8.3.2 Carotenoids
8.3.3 Zeaxanthin
8.3.4 Astaxanthin
8.3.5 Myxol glycosides
8.3.6 Phenolic compounds
8.3.7 Glutathione
8.3.8 Phycobiliproteins
8.3.9 Phycocyanin
8.3.10 Phycoerythrin
8.3.11 Flavonoids
8.3.12 Tocopherols
8.3.13 Ascorbic acid (Ascorbate)
8.3.14 Scytonemin
8.3.15 Mycosporine-like amino acids
8.3.16 Ergothioneine
8.4 Future perspectives
References
9 Antioxidant activity of marine bacterial pigments
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Pigments from marine bacteria
9.2.1 Carotenoids
9.2.2 Prodigiosin
9.2.3 Melanin
9.2.4 Violacein
9.2.5 Phenazine compounds
9.2.6 Quinones
9.2.7 Tambiamines
9.3 Applications of bacterial pigments
9.3.1 Food colorant
9.3.2 Dyeing agent
9.3.3 Anticancer activity
9.3.4 Antimicrobial activity
9.3.5 Antioxidant activity
9.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
Conflict of interest
References
10 Marine antioxidants from microalgae
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress
10.3 Reactive oxygen species and antioxidants
10.4 Application of microalgae antioxidants in cosmetics
10.5 Application of microalgae antioxidants in human health
10.6 Factors influence the antioxidant properties of algae
10.6.1 Metals and acidic situations
10.6.2 Metal entry into the cell
10.6.3 Acidic conditions and metal stress
10.6.4 Fatty acid content
10.6.5 Pigments content
10.6.6 Polysaccharide content
10.6.7 Protein content
10.6.8 High solar irradiance
10.6.9 Nutrient starvation I
10.6.10 Nutrient starvation II
10.6.11 Carotenoid content
10.6.12 Total phenolic content
10.6.13 Influence of illumination intensity
10.6.14 Effect of extraction methods and solvents on the antioxidant potential of microalgae biomass
References
11 Algal cell factories as a source of marine antioxidants
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Marine antioxidants from different algal sources
11.2.1 Cyanobacteria
11.2.2 Microalgae
11.2.3 Macroalgae
11.3 Environmental triggers stressors associated with antioxidant production in microalgae
11.3.1 Nutrients
11.3.2 Light
11.3.3 Salinity
11.4 Extraction of algal antioxidants and their detection assays
11.4.1 Conventional methods
11.4.2 Nonconventional methods
11.4.2.1 Pressurized liquid extraction
11.4.2.2 Supercritical fluid extraction
11.4.2.3 Ultrasound-assisted extraction
11.4.3 Antioxidant detection assays
11.4.3.1 DPPH (2,2-di(4-tert-octylphenyl)-1-picrylhydrazyl) assay
11.4.3.2 Ferric-reducing antioxidant power assay
11.4.3.3 ABTS (2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)) assay
11.5 Potential applications of marine antioxidants
11.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflict of interest
References
12 Halophytes: a potential source of antioxidants
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Antioxidants
12.3 Reactive oxygen species production sites in halophytes
12.3.1 Mitochondria
12.3.2 Chloroplast
12.3.3 Peroxisomes
12.3.4 Apoplast
12.3.5 Plasma membranes
12.4 Scavenging of reactive oxygen species in the halophytes
12.4.1 Scavenging of reactive oxygen species from enzymatic activity in halophytes
12.4.1.1 Guaiacol peroxidase
12.4.1.2 Glutathione reductase
12.4.1.3 Ascorbate peroxidase
12.4.1.4 Catalase
12.4.1.5 Superoxide dismutase
12.4.1.6 Monodehydroascorbate reductase
12.4.1.7 Dehydroascorbate reductase
12.4.2 Nonenzymatic control of reactive oxygen species activity in halophytes
12.4.2.1 Phenols
12.4.2.2 Polyphenols
12.4.2.3 Flavonoids
12.4.2.4 Carotenoids
12.4.2.5 Proline
12.4.2.6 Ascorbic acid
12.5 Application and role of antioxidants in food and nutrition
12.6 Role of antioxidants in disease control
12.7 Conclusion and future prospectus
Acknowledgments
References
13 In silico discovery of antioxidant peptides from the sea grass Posidonia australis
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Materials and methods
13.2.1 Protein sequences of Posidonia australis proteins
13.2.2 In silico gastrointestinal digestion
13.2.3 Screening of gastrointestinal absorption, toxicity, allergenicity, and free radical-scavenging properties
13.2.4 Preparation of ligand and macromolecule structures
13.2.5 Molecular docking with Webina 1.0.3
13.2.6 Pharmacokinetic properties prediction
13.3 Results and discussion
13.4 Conclusions
References
14 Antioxidant properties from novel marine actinobacteria
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Overview of antioxidant potential from actinobacteria
14.3 Types and classification of antioxidant
14.3.1 Role of antioxidant
14.3.2 Free radicals
14.3.3 Total antioxidant activity
14.3.4 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl assay
14.3.5 Total reducing power
14.3.6 Hydrogen peroxide–scavenging assay
14.3.7 Nitric oxide radical–scavenging assay
14.3.8 Lipid peroxidation assay
14.4 Impact on human health
14.5 Antioxidant potential from marine actinobacteria
14.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
15 Marine fish-derived proteins and peptides as potential antioxidants
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Marine fish as sources of proteins and peptides
15.3 Composition of marine fish proteins
15.4 Isolation and purification of antioxidant proteins and peptides
15.4.1 Acid-alkaline hydrolysis
15.4.2 Extraction of collagen protein
15.4.3 Enzymatic hydrolysis
15.4.4 Fermentation method
15.5 Purification of isolated marine fish proteins and peptides
15.6 Assessment of antioxidant activity of marine fish proteins and peptides
15.7 Antioxidant activities of proteins and peptides obtained from marine fish
15.8 Applications of antioxidant proteins and peptides obtained from marine fish
15.9 Future prospects
15.10 Conclusion
References
16 Antioxidant potential from true mangroves and their associated marine organisms
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Antioxidant activity from true mangroves of Avicennia species
16.2.1 Avicennia marina
16.2.2 Avicennia officinalis
16.3 Antioxidant potential from true mangroves of Rhizophora species
16.3.1 Rhizophora mucronata
16.3.2 Rhizophora stylosa
16.3.3 Rhizophora apiculata
16.4 Antioxidant properties from other true mangrove species
16.4.1 Excoecaria agallocha
16.4.2 Lumnitzera racemose
16.4.3 Acanthus ilicifolius
16.4.4 Bruguiera gymnorrhiza
16.5 Mangrove-associated microbes and their potential antioxidant properties
16.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
17 Bioactive peptides as a potential antioxidants from marine byproducts
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Antioxidant peptides
17.3 Preparation and purification of marine bioactive peptides
17.4 Conclusion
References
18 Mangrove species as a potential source of bioactive compounds for diverse therapeutic applications
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Mangrove ecosystem
18.3 Mangroves in traditional medicine
18.4 Bioactive compounds from mangroves
18.5 Therapeutic applications of mangroves
18.5.1 Antioxidant activities
18.5.2 Antimicrobial activities
18.5.3 Anti-inflammatory activities
18.5.4 Anticancer activities
18.5.5 Antidiabetic activities
18.6 Conclusion
References
19 Synthesis of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles based on marine antioxidants from seaweeds: An insight
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Synthesis of nanoparticles
19.2.1 Physical methods
19.2.2 Chemical methods
19.2.3 Biological methods
19.3 Mechanisms involved in the seaweed-mediated biosynthesis of nanoparticles
19.4 Nanoparticles from seaweeds
19.5 Biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles
19.6 Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles
19.7 Other nanoparticles
19.8 Applications of seaweed-mediated nanoparticles
19.8.1 Antibacterial activity
19.8.2 Antifouling activity and biofilm prevention
19.8.3 Anticancer activity
19.8.4 Nanobioremediation
19.8.5 Drug delivery
19.9 Conclusion and future prospects
References
20 Marine antioxidants in the management of atherosclerosis
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Role of inflammation in atherosclerosis
20.3 Role of oxidative stress in atherosclerosis
20.4 The need for antioxidants
20.5 Marine algae
20.5.1 Macroalgae
20.5.1.1 Brown algae (Phaeophyceae)
20.5.1.1.1 Laminaria japonica
20.5.1.1.2 Ascophyllum nodosum
20.5.1.1.3 Sargassum henslowianum
20.5.1.2 Green algae (Chlorophyceae)
20.5.1.2.1 Ulva rigida
20.5.1.2.2 Ulva fasciata
20.5.1.2.3 Codium fragile
20.5.1.2.4 Ulva pertusa
20.5.1.2.5 Ulva lactuca
20.5.1.3 Red algae (Rhodophyceae)
20.5.1.3.1 Gracilaria changii
20.5.1.3.2 Kappaphycus alvarezii
20.5.2 Microalgae
20.5.2.1 Blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria)
20.5.2.1.1 Spirulina platensis
20.5.2.1.2 Aphanizomenon flos-aquae
20.5.2.2 Green microalgae
20.5.2.2.1 Haematococcus pluvialis
20.5.2.2.2 Tetraselmis suecica
20.6 Sponges
20.7 Sea cucumber
20.8 Mussels
20.9 Conclusion
References
21 Seaweed fucoidans and their marine invertebrate animal counterparts
21.1 Seaweed fucoidans
21.2 Fucoidan counterparts in marine invertebrate animals
21.3 Biological activities of sulfated glycans
21.3.1 Sulfated fucans and galactan from sea urchins
21.3.2 Fucosylated chondroitin sulfate from sea cucumber
21.4 Pharmacological effects of the sulfated fucans
21.4.1 Inhibition of tumor cell–platelet complex
21.4.2 Attenuation of metastasis
21.4.3 Antiheparanase activity
21.4.4 Antioxidant and inhibition of cancer cell lines
21.5 Future perspectives
Acknowledgment
References
22 Bioprospection of marine microalgae for novel antioxidants in human health and medicine
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Microalgal antioxidants and their applications
22.3 Types of antioxidants found in microalgae
22.3.1 Flavonoids
22.3.2 Pigments
22.3.3 Polysaccharides
22.3.4 Proteins
22.3.5 Vitamins
22.3.6 Sterols
22.4 Antioxidant activity of microalgae
22.5 Screening and quantification of antioxidants
22.6 Industrial process of microalgal antioxidant production
22.7 Conclusion and future aspects
References
23 Antioxidant potential of carotenoids derived from marine bacteria and their applications
23.1 Introduction
References
24 Immunomodulatory and therapeutic potential of marine-derived astaxanthin: current developments and future prospects
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Extraction of astaxanthin
24.3 Therapeutic properties of astaxanthin
24.3.1 Antiinflammatory activity
24.3.2 Antioxidant activity
24.3.3 Anticancer activity
24.3.3.1 Anticancer activity through immunomodulation
24.3.4 Neuroprotective effects
24.3.5 Metabolic syndrome
24.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflict of interest
References
25 Marine antioxidants and their role in improving skin health
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Marine antioxidants: an approach to improve skin health
25.2.1 Carotenoids
25.2.2 Polyphenols
25.2.3 Microalgal vitamins
25.2.4 Polyunsaturated fatty acids
25.2.5 Mycosporine-like amino acids
25.2.6 Polysaccharides
25.3 Importance of marine sources in the cosmetic industry
25.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
26 Neuroprotective potential of marine algal antioxidants
26.1 Introduction
26.2 The relationship between oxidative stress and neurodegeneration
26.3 Marine algae as a natural source of antioxidants
26.4 Neuroprotective potential of marine algal antioxidants
26.4.1 Phlorotannins
26.4.2 Sulfated polysaccharides
26.4.3 Carotenoids
26.4.4 Other antioxidant compounds
26.5 Limitations and future directions
26.6 Conclusion
References
27 Fucoidans: a marine antioxidant
27.1 Introduction
27.1.1 Food from marine sources
27.1.1.1 Spirulina
27.1.1.2 Cladosiphonokamuranus
27.1.1.3 Microalgae
27.1.2 Antioxidants from marine sources
27.1.3 Marine polysaccharides as antioxidants
27.1.4 Gelling, thickening, and stabilizers from marine sources
27.1.5 Film-forming agents from marine sources
27.1.6 Cosmeceuticals from marine sources
27.2 Fucoidan
27.2.1 Fucoidan features
27.2.2 Fucoidans as antioxidants
27.2.3 Applications of fucoidans
27.2.3.1 Humectants and antiaging agents
27.2.3.2 Oil-in-water emulsion/emulsifying agent
27.2.3.3 Oil-in-water emulsion/pH stabilizing agent
27.2.3.4 Fucoidan-shelled chitosan beads/antiadherent agent/gelling agent
27.2.3.5 Hydrogel/gelling agent/stabilizing agent
27.2.3.6 Capping agent
27.2.3.7 Microsphere/encapsulating agent
27.2.3.8 Nanoparticles
27.2.3.9 Fucoidan-metal nanoparticles
27.2.3.10 Liposomes
27.2.3.11 Semisolid formulations
27.2.3.12 Microparticles
27.2.3.13 Cancer therapy
27.2.3.14 Cosmetics
27.3 Conclusion
References
Further reading
28 Elucidation of the antioxidant potential of marine macroalgal biomolecules for healthcare applications: current status a...
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Antioxidant potential of seaweed biomolecules
28.2.1 Macroalgal carbohydrates
28.2.1.1 Agar and agaro-oligosaccharides
28.2.1.2 Carrageenan and carrageenan oligosaccharides
28.2.1.3 Porphyran and porphyran oligosaccharides
28.2.1.4 Alginate and alginate oligosaccharides
28.2.1.5 Fucoidan and fucoidan oligosaccharides
28.2.1.6 Laminarin and laminarin oligosaccharides
28.2.1.7 Ulvan and ulvan oligosaccharides
28.2.2 Macroalgal proteins
28.2.3 Macroalgal lipids
28.2.4 Macroalgal phenols
28.2.5 Phenolic compounds
28.2.5.1 Phlorotannins
28.2.6 Macroalgal pigments
28.2.6.1 Phycobilins
28.2.6.2 Carotenoid-fucoxanthin
28.3 Healthcare applications
28.4 Conclusion and future prospects
Acknowledgments
References
29 Marine polymers and their antioxidative perspective
29.1 Introduction
29.2 The ocean as a source of antioxidant biopolymers
29.3 Antioxidant polysaccharides from marine resources
29.3.1 Hyaluronic acid
29.3.2 Chitin, chitosan, and chitooligosaccharide derivatives
29.3.3 Antioxidant polysaccharides from marine invertebrates
29.3.4 Polysaccharide antioxidants from seaweeds
29.3.5 Microalgal polysaccharides
29.3.6 Marine microbial exopolysaccharides
29.4 Marine proteins
29.4.1 Peptides
29.4.2 Mycosporines and mycosporine-like amino acids
29.5 Conclusions
References
30 Marine peptides: potential applications as natural antioxidants
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Preparation, purification, and basic characteristics of bioactive peptides
30.3 Marine peptides as sources of antioxidants
30.4 Factors affecting antioxidant properties of peptides
30.4.1 Sequence and composition of amino acids
30.4.2 Degree of hydrolysis
30.4.3 Molecular weights of peptides
30.5 Applications of marine peptides
30.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
31 Squalene: bioactivity, extraction, encapsulation, and future perspectives
31.1 Introduction
31.1.1 Structure of squalene
31.1.2 Sources and properties of squalene
31.1.2.1 Physicochemical properties of squalene
31.1.3 Endogenous synthesis of squalene
31.1.4 Bioactivities of squalene
31.1.4.1 Anticancerous properties
31.1.4.2 Cholesterol metabolism
31.1.4.3 Antioxidant and other protective properties
31.1.4.4 Drug and gene delivery
31.1.4.5 Nutraceutical applications
31.1.5 Extraction of squalene
31.1.5.1 Supercritical fluid extraction
31.1.5.2 Extraction of squalene using SFE
31.2 Other methods of squalene extraction
31.2.1 Encapsulation
31.2.2 Determination of squalene
31.3 Future perspectives for squalene
Acknowledgments
References
32 Anticancer potentiated bioactive compounds from marine flora
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Marine algae act as anticancer agents
32.3 The anticancer properties of marine plants
32.4 Marine fungi bioactive compounds against cancer
32.5 Anticancer properties of seaweeds
32.6 Marine phytochemical exploring diverse cancer treatment
32.6.1 Epidermal growth factor receptor signaling
32.6.2 Transforming growth factor beta signaling
32.6.3 JAK/STAT signaling
32.6.4 Stimulates tumor suppressors
32.6.5 Inhibiting proliferating factors
32.6.6 Inhibiting angiogenesis
32.6.7 Inducing apoptosis
32.7 Approval of anticancer medicines derived from marine sources by the US food and drug administration
32.8 Marine medications have been authorized and are undergoing clinical studies
32.9 Conclusion
References
33 Antioxidant potentials of polysaccharides derived from marine brown algae
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Constituents of marine brown algae
33.3 Brown algae as a source of antioxidants
33.4 Determinants of antioxidant potentials
33.5 Brown algae–derived antioxidant compounds
33.5.1 Carotenoids
33.5.2 Polyphenols
33.5.3 Phlorotannins
33.5.4 Sulfated polysaccharides
33.5.5 Sterols
33.5.6 Vitamins and minerals
33.6 Future perspectives
33.7 Conclusion
References
Further reading
34 Antitumor and antiangiogenic properties of antioxidant molecules derived from marine algae
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Marine algae as anticancer agents
34.3 Preclinical trials carried out with metabolites derived from marine algae
34.4 Clinical trials carried out with metabolites derived from marine algae
34.5 Conclusion and future perspectives
References
35 Antioxidants from the red algae Kappaphycus alvarezii
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Applications of algae in different fields
35.2.1 Algae as a food source
35.2.2 Algae for hydrocolloid production
35.2.2.1 Agar
35.2.2.2 Carrageenan
35.2.2.3 Alginate
35.2.3 Pigments from algae
35.2.4 Polyunsaturated fatty acids from algae
35.2.5 Use of algae in cosmetics
35.2.6 Algae as fertilizer
35.2.7 Algae as aquaculture feed
35.2.8 Algae as biofuel
35.2.9 Algae in bioremediation
35.2.10 Pharmaceutical applications of algae
35.3 Seaweed production
35.4 Red algae
35.4.1 Kappaphycus alverezi
35.4.2 Cultivation methods
35.4.3 Antioxidant activity of red algae
35.4.3.1 Phenolic compounds
35.4.3.2 Phlorotannins
35.4.3.3 Bromophenols
35.4.3.4 Flavonoids
35.4.3.5 Phenolic terpenoids
35.4.3.6 Pigments
35.4.3.6.1 Carotenoids
35.4.3.6.2 Chlorophylls
35.4.3.6.3 Phycobiliproteins
35.4.3.7 Hydrocolloids
35.4.3.8 Other compounds
35.4.4 Extractions and purification of bioactive compounds from algae
35.4.4.1 Extraction
35.4.4.2 Purification, quantification, and characterization
35.4.5 Role of seaweeds in the development of functional foods
35.5 Conclusions and future roadmap
References
36 Marine algal carbohydrate and peptide antioxidants
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Algal polysaccharides as antioxidants
36.2.1 Brown algal polysaccharide antioxidants
36.2.2 Red algal polysaccharide antioxidants
36.2.3 Green algae polysaccharide antioxidants
36.2.4 Microalgal polysaccharide antioxidants
36.3 Factors influencing antioxidant properties of polysaccharide
36.3.1 Molecular weight
36.3.2 Degree and position of sulfation
36.3.3 Influence of monosaccharide composition on antioxidant properties
36.3.4 Other factors
36.4 Algal peptides as antioxidants
36.5 Factors influencing antioxidant properties of peptides
36.5.1 Degree of hydrolysis and molecular weights of peptides
36.5.2 Composition and sequence of amino acids
36.6 Applications
36.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
37 Antioxidant properties of marine-derived polysaccharides and metal nanoparticles
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Fucoidan-derived polysaccharides as an antioxidant
37.3 Sulfated polysaccharides as an antioxidant
37.4 Ulvan polysaccharides as an antioxidant
37.5 Polysaccharides from other marine organisms as antioxidants
37.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Index
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