Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Cover
Dedication
Contents
Preface
About the Authors …
Chapter 1 : Introduction
1.1 What is Manufacturing?
1.2 Product Design and Concurrent Engineering
1.3 Design for Manufacture, Assembly, Disassembly, and Service
1.4 Environmentally Conscious Design, Sustainable Manufacturing, and Product Life Cycle
1.5 Selecting Materials
1.6 Selecting Manufacturing Processes
1.7 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing
1.8 Lean Production and Agile Manufacturing
1.9 Quality Assurance and Total Quality Management
1.10 Manufacturing Costs and Global Competitiveness
1.11 General Trends in Manufacturing
Summary
References
Bibliography
Chapter 2 : Fundamentals of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Tension
2.2.1 Ductility
2.2.2 True stress and true strain
2.2.3 True stress–true strain curves
2.2.4 Instability in tension
2.2.5 Types of stress–strain curves
2.2.6 Effects of temperature
2.2.7 Effects of strain rate
2.2.8 Effects of hydrostatic pressure
2.2.9 Effects of radiation
2.3 Compression
2.3.1 Plane-strain compression test
2.3.2 Bauschinger effect
2.3.3 The disk test
2.4 Torsion
2.5 Bending
2.6 Hardness
2.6.1 Brinell test
2.6.2 Rockwell test
2.6.3 Vickers test
2.6.4 Knoop test
2.6.5 Scleroscope
2.6.6 Mohs test
2.6.7 Durometer
2.6.8 Relationship between hardness and strength
2.7 Fatigue
2.8 Creep
2.9 Impact
2.10 Residual Stresses
2.10.1 Effects of residual stresses
2.10.2 Reduction of residual stresses
2.11 Triaxial Stresses and Yield Criteria
2.11.1 Maximum-shear-stress criterion
2.11.2 Distortion-energy criterion
2.11.3 Plane stress and plane strain
2.11.4 Experimental verification of yield criteria
2.11.5 Volume strain
2.11.6 Effective stress and effective strain
2.11.7 Comparison of normal stress–normal strain and shear stress–shear strain
2.12 Work of Deformation
2.12.1 Work, heat, and temperature rise
Summary
Summary of Equations
Bibliography
Questions
Problems
Chapter 3 : Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Crystal Structure of Metals
3.3 Deformation and Strengthof Single Crystals
3.3.1 Slip systems
3.3.2 Ideal tensile strength of metals
3.3.3 Imperfections
3.3.4 Strain hardening (work hardening)
3.4 Grains and Grain Boundaries
3.4.1 Grain size
3.4.2 Influence of grain boundaries
3.5 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals
3.6 Recovery, Recrystallization,and Grain Growth
3.7 Cold, Warm, and Hot Working
3.8 Failure and Fracture
3.8.1 Ductile fracture
3.8.2 Brittle fracture
3.8.3 Size effect
3.9 Physical Properties
3.9.1 Density
3.9.2 Melting point
3.9.3 Specific heat
3.9.4 Thermal conductivity
3.9.5 Thermal expansion
3.9.6 Electrical and magnetic properties
3.9.7 Resistance to corrosion
3.10 General Properties and Applications of Ferrous Alloys
3.10.1 Carbon and alloy steels
3.10.2 Stainless steels
3.10.3 Tool and die steels
3.11 General Properties and Applications of Nonferrous Metals and Alloys
3.11.1 Aluminum and aluminum alloys
3.11.2 Magnesium and magnesium alloys
3.11.3 Copper and copper alloys
3.11.4 Nickel and nickel alloys
3.11.5 Superalloys
3.11.6 Titanium and titanium alloys
3.11.7 Refractory metals
3.11.8 Other nonferrous metals
3.11.9 Special metals and alloys
Summary
Summary of Equations
Bibliography
Questions
Problems
Chapter 4 : Surfaces, Tribology, Dimensional Characteristics, Inspection, and Product Quality Assurance
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Surface Structure and Properties
4.3 Surface Texture and Roughness
4.4 Tribology: Friction, Wear, and Lubrication
4.4.1 Friction
4.4.2 Wear
4.4.3 Lubrication
4.4.4 Metalworking fluids
4.5 Surface Treatments, Coatings, and Cleaning
4.5.1 Surface treatment processes
4.5.2 Cleaning of surfaces
4.6 Engineering Metrology and Instrumentation
4.6.1 Measuring instruments
4.6.2 Automated measurement
4.7 Dimensional Tolerances
4.8 Testing and Inspection
4.8.1 Nondestructive testing techniques
4.8.2 Destructive testing techniques
4.8.3 Automated inspection
4.9 Quality Assurance
4.9.1 Statistical methods of quality control
4.9.2 Statistical process control
Summary
Summary of Equations
Bibliography
Questions
Problems
Chapter 5 : Metal-Casting Processes and Equipment; Heat Treatment
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Solidification of Metals
5.2.1 Solid solutions
5.2.2 Intermetallic compounds
5.2.3 Two-phase alloys
5.2.4 Phase diagrams
5.2.5 The iron-carbon system
5.2.6 The iron-iron carbide phase diagram
5.3 Cast Structures
5.3.1 Pure metals
5.3.2 Alloys
5.3.3 Structure-property relationships
5.4 Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer
5.4.1 Fluid flow
5.4.2 Fluidity of molten metal
5.4.3 Heat transfer
5.4.4 Solidification time
5.4.5 Shrinkage
5.5 Melting Practice and Furnaces
5.6 Casting Alloys
5.6.1 Ferrous casting alloys
5.6.2 Nonferrous casting alloys
5.7 Ingot Casting and Continuous Casting
5.7.1 Ferrous alloy ingots
5.7.2 Continuous casting
5.7.3 Strip casting
5.8 Expendable-Mold, Permanent-Pattern Casting Processes
5.8.1 Sand casting
5.8.2 Shell-mold casting
5.8.3 Plaster-mold casting
5.8.4 Ceramic-mold casting
5.8.5 Vacuum casting
5.9 Expendable-Mold, Expendable-Pattern Casting Processes
5.9.1 Expendable-pattern casting (lost foam)
5.9.2 Investment casting (lost-wax process)
5.10 Permanent-Mold Casting Processes
5.10.1 Slush casting
5.10.2 Pressure casting
5.10.3 Die casting
5.10.4 Centrifugal casting
5.10.5 Squeeze casting
5.10.6 Semisolid metal forming (thixocasting) and rheocasting
5.10.7 Casting techniques for single-crystal components
5.10.8 Rapid solidification
5.11 Heat Treatment
5.11.1 Heat treating ferrous alloys
5.11.2 Heat treating nonferrous alloys and stainless steels
5.11.3 Case hardening
5.11.4 Annealing
5.11.5 Tempering
5.11.6 Cryogenic treatment
5.11.7 Design for heat treating
5.11.8 Cleaning, finishing, and inspecting castings
5.12 Design Considerations
5.12.1 Defects in castings
5.12.2 General design considerations
5.12.3 Design principles for expendable-mold casting
5.12.4 Design principles for permanent-mold casting
5.12.5 Computer modeling of casting processes
5.13 Economics of Casting
Summary
Case Study Lost-Foam Casting of Engine Blocks
Summary of Equations
Bibliography
Questions
Problems
Design
Chapter 6 : Bulk Deformation Processes
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Forging
6.2.1 Open-die forging
6.2.2 Methods of analysis
6.2.3 Types of forging
6.2.4 Miscellaneous forging operations
6.2.5 Forging defects
6.2.6 Forgeability
6.2.7 Die design
6.2.8 Equipment
6.3 Rolling
6.3.1 Mechanics of flat rolling
6.3.2 Defects in rolled products
6.3.3 Vibration and chatter in rolling
6.3.4 Flat-rolling practice
6.3.5 Miscellaneous rolling operations
6.4 Extrusion
6.4.1 Metal flow in extrusion
6.4.2 Mechanics of extrusion
6.4.3 Miscellaneous extrusion processes
6.4.4 Defects in extrusion
6.4.5 Extrusion practice
6.5 Rod, Wire, and Tube Drawing
6.5.1 Mechanics of rod and wire drawing
6.5.2 Defects in drawing
6.5.3 Drawing practice
6.6 Swaging
6.7 Die Manufacturing Methods
6.8 Die Failures
6.9 Economics of Bulk Forming
Summary
Case Study Suspension Components for the Lotus Elise Automobile
Summary of Equations
Bibliography
Questions
Problems
Design
Chapter 7 : Sheet-Metal Forming Processes
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sheet-Metal Characteristics
7.2.1 Elongation
7.3 Shearing
7.3.1 Shearing operations
7.3.2 Shearing dies
7.3.3 Miscellaneous methods of cutting sheet metal
7.3.4 Tailor-welded blanks
7.4 Bending of Sheet and Plate
7.4.1 Minimum bend radius
7.4.2 Springback
7.4.3 Forces
7.4.4 Common bending operations
7.4.5 Tube bending
7.5 Miscellaneous Forming Processes
7.5.1 Stretch forming
7.5.2 Bulging
7.5.3 Rubber-pad forming and hydroforming
7.5.4 Spinning
7.5.5 High-Energy-Rate Forming
7.6 Deep Drawing
7.6.1 Deep drawability (limiting drawing ratio)
7.6.2 Deep-Drawing practice
7.7 Formability of Sheet Metals and Modeling
7.7.1 Testing for formability
7.7.2 Dent resistance of sheet-metal parts
7.7.3 Modeling of sheet-metal forming processes
7.8 Equipment for Sheet-Metal Forming
7.9 Design Considerations
7.10 Economics of Sheet-Metal Forming
Case Study Cymbal Manufacture
Summary
Summary of Equations
Bibliography
Questions
Problems
Design
Chapter 8 : Material-Removal Processes: Cutting
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Mechanics of Chip Formation
8.2.1 Chip morphology
8.2.2 Mechanics of oblique cutting
8.2.3 Forces in orthogonal cutting
8.2.4 Shear-angle relationships
8.2.5 Specific energy
8.2.6 Temperature
8.3 Tool Wear and Failure
8.3.1 Flank wear
8.3.2 Crater wear
8.3.3 Chipping
8.3.4 General observations on tool wear
8.3.5 Tool-condition monitoring
8.4 Surface Finish and Surface Integrity
8.5 Machinability
8.5.1 Machinability of steels
8.5.2 Machinability of various metals
8.5.3 Machinability of various materials
8.5.4 Thermally assisted machining
8.6 Cutting-Tool Materials
8.6.1 Carbon and medium-alloy steels
8.6.2 High-speed steels
8.6.3 Cast-cobalt alloys
8.6.4 Carbides
8.6.5 Coated tools
8.6.6 Alumina-base ceramics
8.6.7 Cubic boron nitride
8.6.8 Silicon-nitride-base ceramics
8.6.9 Diamond
8.6.10 Whisker-reinforced and nanocrystalline tool materials
8.6.11 Cryogenic treatment of cutting tools
8.7 Cutting Fluids
8.7.1 Types of cutting fluids and methods of application
8.7.2 Near-dry and dry machining
8.7.3 Cryogenic machining
8.8 High-Speed Machining
8.9 Machining Processes and Machine Tools for Producing Round Shapes
8.9.1 Turning parameters
8.9.2 Lathes and lathe operations
8.9.3 Boring and boring machines
8.9.4 Drilling, reaming, and tapping
8.10 Machining Processes and Machine Tools for Producing Various Shapes
8.10.1 Milling operations
8.10.2 Planing and planers
8.10.3 Shaping and shapers
8.10.4 Broaching and broaching machines
8.10.5 Sawing and saws
8.10.6 Filing
8.10.7 Gear manufacturing by machining
8.11 Machining and Turning Centers
8.11.1 Types of machining and turning centers
8.11.2 Characteristics and capabilities of machining centers
8.11.3 Reconfigurable Machines and Systems
8.11.4 Hexapod machines
8.12 Vibration and Chatter
8.13 Machine-Tool Structures
8.14 Design Considerations
8.15 Economics of Machining
Case Study Ping Golf Putters
Summary
Summary of Equations
Bibliography
Questions
Problems
Design
Chapter 9 : Material-Removal Processes: Abrasive, Chemical, Electrical, and High-Energy Beams
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Abrasives
9.3 Bonded Abrasives
9.3.1 Bond types
9.3.2 Wheel grade and structure
9.4 Mechanics of Grinding
9.4.1 Grinding forces
9.4.2 Temperature
9.4.3 Effects of temperature
9.5 Grinding Wheel Wear
9.5.1 Dressing, truing, and shaping of grinding wheels
9.5.2 Grinding ratio
9.5.3 Wheel selection and grindability of materials
9.6 Grinding Operations and Machines
9.6.1 Surface grinding
9.6.2 Cylindrical grinding
9.6.3 Internal grinding
9.6.4 Centerless grinding
9.6.5 Other types of grinders
9.6.6 Creep-feed grinding
9.6.7 Heavy stock removal by grinding
9.6.8 Grinding chatter
9.6.9 Grinding fluids
9.7 Finishing Operations
9.8 Deburring
9.9 Ultrasonic Machining
9.10 Chemical Machining
9.10.1 Chemical milling
9.10.2 Chemical blanking
9.10.3 Photochemical blanking
9.11 Electrochemical Machining
9.12 Electrochemical Grinding
9.13 Electrical-Discharge Machining
9.13.1 Electrical-discharge grinding
9.13.2 Wire EDM
9.14 High-Energy-Beam Machining
9.14.1 Laser-beam machining
9.14.2 Electron-beam machining and plasma-arc cutting
9.15 Water-Jet, Abrasive Water-Jet, and Abrasive-Jet Machining
9.16 Design Considerations
9.16.1 Grinding and abrasive machining processes
9.16.2 Ultrasonic machining
9.16.3 Chemical machining
9.16.4 Electrochemical machining and grinding
9.16.5 Electrical discharge machining
9.16.6 Laser- and electron-beam machining
9.17 Process Economics
Case Study Manufacture of Stents
Summary
Summary of Equations
Bibliography
Questions
Problems
Design
Chapter 10 : Properties and Processing of Polymers and Reinforced Plastics; Rapid Prototyping and Rapid Tooling
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Structure of Polymers
10.2.1 Polymerization
10.2.2 Crystallinity
10.2.3 Glass-transition temperature
10.2.4 Polymer blends
10.2.5 Additives in polymers
10.3 : Thermoplastics: Behavior and Properties
10.4 Thermosets: Behavior and Properties
10.5 : Thermoplastics: General Characteristics and Applications
10.6 Thermosets: General Characteristics and Applications
10.7 High-Temperature Polymers, Electrically Conducting Polymers, and Biodegradable Plastics
10.7.1 High-temperature polymers
10.7.2 Electrically conducting polymers
10.7.3 Biodegradable plastics
10.8 Elastomers (Rubbers): General Characteristics and Applications
10.9 Reinforced Plastics
10.9.1 Structure of polymer-matrix-reinforced plastics
10.9.2 Reinforcing fibers: characteristics and manufacture
10.9.3 Fiber size and length
10.9.4 Matrix materials
10.9.5 Properties of reinforced plastics
10.9.6 Applications of reinforced plastics
10.10 Processing of Plastics
10.10.1 Extrusion
10.10.2 Injection molding
10.10.3 Blow molding
10.10.4 Rotational molding
10.10.5 Thermoforming
10.10.6 Compression molding
10.10.7 Transfer molding
10.10.8 Casting
10.10.9 Cold forming and solid-phase forming
10.10.10 Processing elastomers
10.11 : Processing of Polymer-Matrix-Reinforced Plastics
10.11.1 Molding
10.11.2 Filament winding, pultrusion, and pulforming
10.11.3 Product quality
10.12 Rapid Prototyping and Rapid Tooling
10.12.1 Stereolithography
10.12.2 Polyjet
10.12.3 Fused-deposition modeling
10.12.4 Selective laser sintering
10.12.5 Three-Dimensional Printing
10.12.6 Direct (rapid) manufacturing and rapid tooling
10.13 Design Considerations
10.14 Economics of Processing Plastics
Case Study Invisalign Orthodontic Aligners
Summary
Summary of Equations
Bibliography
Questions
Problems
Design
Chapter 11 : Properties and Processing of Metal Powders, Ceramics, Glasses, and Superconductors
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Powder Metallurgy
11.2.1 Production of metal powders
11.2.2 Particle size, distribution, and shape
11.2.3 Blending metal powders
11.3 Compaction of Metal Powders
11.3.1 Pressure distribution in powder compaction
11.3.2 Equipment
11.3.3 Isostatic pressing
11.3.4 Miscellaneous compacting and shaping processes
11.3.5 Punch and die materials
11.4 Sintering
11.5 Secondary and Finishing Operations
11.6 Design Considerations for Powder Metallurgy
11.7 Economics of Powder Metallurgy
11.8 Ceramics: Structure, Properties, and Applications
11.8.1 Structure and types of ceramics
11.8.2 General properties and applications of ceramics
11.9 Shaping Ceramics
11.9.1 Casting
11.9.2 Plastic forming
11.9.3 Pressing
11.9.4 Drying and firing
11.9.5 Finishing operations
11.10 Glasses: Structure, Properties, and Applications
11.10.1 Types of glasses
11.10.2 Mechanical properties
11.10.3 Physical properties
11.10.4 Glass ceramics
11.11 Forming and Shaping Glass
11.11.1 Manufacture of discrete glass products
11.11.2 Techniques for treating glass
11.12 Design Considerations for Ceramic and Glass Products
11.13 Graphite and Diamond
11.13.1 Graphite
11.13.2 Diamond
11.14 Processing Metal-Matrix and Ceramic-Matrix Composites
11.14.1 Metal-matrix composites
11.14.2 Ceramic-matrix composites
11.14.3 Miscellaneous composites
11.15 Processing Superconductors
Case Study Hot Isostatic Pressing of Valve Lifter
Summary
Summary of Equations
Bibliography
Questions
Problems
Design
Chapter 12 : Joining and Fastening Processes
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Oxyfuel Gas Welding
12.3 : Arc Welding Processes: Consumable Electrode
12.3.1 Heat transfer in arc welding
12.3.2 Shielded metal arc weiding
12.3.3 Submerged arc welding
12.3.4 Gas metal arc welding
12.3.5 Flux-cored arc welding
12.3.6 Electrogas welding
12.3.7 Electroslag welding
12.3.8 Electrodes for arc welding
12.4 Arc Welding Processes: Nonconsumable Electrode
12.4.1 Gas tungsten arc welding
12.4.2 Atomic hydrogen welding
12.4.3 Plasma arc welding
12.5 High-Energy-Beam Welding
12.5.1 Electron-beam welding
12.5.2 Laser-beam welding
12.6 The Fusion Welded Joint
12.6.1 Weld quality
12.6.2 Weldability
12.6.3 Testing welded joints
12.6.4 Welding process selection
12.7 Cold Welding
12.8 Ultrasonic Welding
12.9 Friction Welding
12.10 Resistance Welding
12.10.1 Resistance spot welding
12.10.2 Resistance seam welding
12.10.3 Resistance projection welding
12.10.4 Flash welding
12.10.5 Stud arc welding
12.10.6 Percussion welding
12.11 Explosion Welding
12.12 Diffusion Bonding
12.13 Brazing and Soldering
12.13.1 Brazing
12.13.2 Brazing methods
12.13.3 Soldering
12.14 Adhesive Bonding
12.14.1 Types of adhesives
12.14.2 Surface preparation and application
12.14.3 Process capabilities
12.14.4 Electrically conducting adhesives
12.15 Mechanical Fastening
12.15.1 Hole preparation
12.15.2 Threaded fasteners
12.15.3 Rivets
12.15.4 Various methods of fastening
12.16 Joining Nonmetallic Materials
12.16.1 Joining thermoplastics
12.16.2 Joining thermosets
12.16.3 Joining ceramics and glasses
12.17 Design Considerations in Joining
12.17.1 Design for welding
12.17.2 Design for brazing and joining
12.17.3 Design for adhesive bonding
12.17.4 Design for mechanical fastening
12.18 Economic Considerations
Case Study Friction Welding of Monosteel® Pistons
Summary
Summary of Equations
Bibliography
Questions
Problems
Design
Chapter 13 : Fabrication of Microelectronic, Micromechanical, and Microelectromechanical Devices; Nanomanufacturing
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Clean Rooms
13.3 Semiconductors and Silicon
13.4 Crystal Growing and Wafer Preparation
13.5 Films and Film Deposition
13.6 Oxidation
13.7 Lithography
13.8 Etching
13.8.1 Wet etching
13.8.2 Dry etching
13.9 Diffusion and Ion Implantation
13.10 Metallization and Testing
13.11 Wire Bonding and Packaging
13.12 Yield and Reliability of Chips
13.13 Printed Circuit Boards
13.14 Micromachining of MEMS Devices
13.14.1 Bulk micromachining
13.14.2 Surface micromachining
13.15 LIGA and Related Microfabrication Processes
13.16 Solid Freeform Fabrication of Devices
13.17 Mesoscale Manufacturing
13.18 Nanoscale Manufacturing
CASE STUDY Digital Micromirror Device
Summary
Bibliography
Questions
Problems
Design
Chapter 14 : Automation of Manufacturing Processes and Operations
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Automation
14.2.1 Evolution of automation
14.2.2 Goals of automation
14.2.3 Applications of automation
14.2.4 Hard automation
14.2.5 Soft automation
14.2.6 Programmable controllers
14.2.7 Total productive maintenance
14.3 Numerical Control
14.3.1 Computer numerical control
14.3.2 Principles of numerical control machines
14.3.3 Types of control systems
14.3.4 Positioning accuracy of numerical control machines
14.3.5 Advantages and limitations of numerical control
14.4 Programming for Numerical Control
14.5 Adaptive Control
14.6 Material Handling and Movement
14.7 Industrial Robots
14.7.1 Robot components
14.7.2 Classification of robots
14.7.3 Applications and selection of robots
14.8 Sensor Technology
14.8.1 Sensor classification
14.8.2 Sensor fusion
14.9 Flexible Fixturing
14.10 Assembly, Disassembly, and Service
14.10.1 Assembly systems
14.11 Design Considerations
14.11.1 Design for fixturing
14.11.2 Design for assembly, disassembly, and service
14.12 Economic Considerations
Summary
Bibliography
Questions
Problems
Design
Chapter 15 : Computer-Integrated Manufacturing Systems
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Manufacturing Systems
15.3 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing
15.3.1 Computer-integrated manufacturing databases
15.4 Computer-Aided Design and Engineering
15.4.1 Exchange specifications
15.4.2 Elements of computer-aided design systems
15.5 Computer-Aided Manufacturing
15.6 Computer-Aided Process Planning
15.6.1 Elements of computer-aided process-planning systems
15.6.2 Material-requirements and manufacturing resource planning systems
15.6.3 Enterprise resource planning
15.7 Computer Simulation of Manufacturing Processes and Systems
15.8 Group Technology
15.8.1 Classification and coding of parts
15.8.2 Coding
15.8.3 Coding systems
15.8.4 Advantages of group technology
15.9 Cellular Manufacturing
15.10 Flexible Manufacturing Systems
15.11 Holonic Manufacturing
15.12 Just-in-Time Production
15.13 Lean Manufacturing
15.14 Communications Networks in Manufacturing
15.14.1 Communications standards
15.15 Artificial Intelligence
15.15.1 Expert systems
15.15.2 Natural-language processing
15.15.3 Machine vision
15.15.4 Artificial neural networks
15.15.5 Fuzzy logic
Summary
Bibliography
Questions
Problems
Design
Chapter 16 : Product Design and Manufacturingin a Global Competitive Environment
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Product Design and Robust Design
16.2.1 Product design considerations
16.2.2 Product design and quantity of materials
16.2.3 Robustness and robust design
16.3 Product Quality and Quality Management
16.3.1 Quality as a manufacturing goal
16.3.2 Total quality management
16.3.3 Deming methods
16.3.4 Taguchi methods
16.3.5 Taguchi loss function
16.3.6 The ISO and QS Standards
16.4 Life-Cycle Engineering and Sustainable Manufacturing
16.5 Selection of Materials for Products
16.5.1 General properties of materials
16.5.2 Shapes of commercially available materials
16.5.3 Manufacturing characteristics of materials
16.5.4 Reliability of material supply
16.5.5 Cost of materials and processing
16.6 Substitution of Materials in Products
16.7 Capabilities of Manufacturing Processes
16.7.1 Robustness in manufacturing processes and machinery
16.8 Selection of Manufacturing Processes
16.9 Manufacturing Costs and Cost Reduction
16.9.1 Cost reduction
Summary
Summary of Equations
Bibliography
Questions
Problems
Design
Index