Machinery and Energy Systems for the Hydrogen Economy

Front Cover
Machinery and Energy Systems for the Hydrogen Economy
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
About the editors
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1: Machinery in the energy future
1.1. The hydrogen economy
1.2. Energy sources
1.3. The role of machinery
1.4. Competition with electrochemistry
1.5. Ongoing issues
1.6. Machinery in the energy future
References
Section A: Hydrogen background
Chapter 2: Fundamentals
2.1. Physical and chemical properties of hydrogen
2.2. Fundamental hydrogen reaction kinetics
2.2.1. Explosion limits of hydrogen and oxidation kinetics of hydrogen
2.2.2. Development of oxidation kinetics of hydrogen
2.3. Hydrogen combustion properties
2.3.1. Hydrogen flames
2.3.2. Hydrogen ignition
References
Chapter 3: Machinery basics
3.1. Introduction
3.1.1. Hydrogen production
3.1.1.1. Natural gas
3.1.1.2. Coal gasification
3.1.1.3. Water
3.1.2. Hydrogen transportation and storage
3.1.2.1. Pipeline
3.1.2.2. Pressurized tanker
Liquefaction and insulated tanker
3.1.3. Hydrogen distribution and fueling
3.1.4. Carbon capture, utilization, and storage
3.1.5. Hydrogen end uses
3.2. Machinery
3.2.1. Compressor types and operating ranges
3.2.2. Centrifugal compressors
3.2.2.1. Compressor maps
3.2.2.2. Variable speed
Adjustable inlet vanes
Adjustable diffusor vanes
Throttling (suction, discharge)
Recycling
3.2.2.3. Control variable interactions
3.2.2.4. Multiple units
3.2.2.5. Interaction of the compressor and the compression system
3.2.2.6. Surge
3.2.2.7. Stall
3.2.2.8. Choke
3.2.2.9. Surge margin and turndown
3.2.2.10. Surge control
3.2.2.11. Turbocompressor performance example with hydrogen and other gases
3.2.2.12. Centrifugal hydrogen compressor concepts
3.2.3. Reciprocating compressors (booster, make-up gas, fueling, etc.)
3.2.3.1. Reciprocating compressor categories
3.2.3.2. Reciprocating compressor components
Compressor frame
Powertrain and bearings
Lubrication system
Distance pieces
Compressor cylinders
3.2.3.3. Cylinder unloading devices
3.2.3.4. Reciprocating compressor operation
3.2.4. Hydraulic compressors (fueling)
3.2.5. Ionic compressors (fueling)
3.2.6. Diaphragm compressor (fueling)
3.2.7. Pumps (loading and unloading)
3.2.7.1. Pumps
3.2.8. Drivers for end-use power generation/power recovery
3.2.8.1. Gas engines
Thermodynamics
Efficiency
Hydrogen fuel
3.2.8.2. Gas turbines
Industrial gas turbines
3.2.8.3. Expanders
Hydrogen turbine
Axial turbine
Radial-inflow turbine
Considerations for axial turbines
Considerations for radial turbines
3.2.8.4. Radial turboexpander (Antipenkov et al., 1969) comparison of calculated and experimental data
References
Further reading
Chapter 4: Heat engines
4.1. Thermodynamic principles
4.1.1. Introduction: Equilibrium of a system
4.1.2. Energy, heat, and work
4.1.3. First law of thermodynamics
4.1.4. Second law of thermodynamics
4.1.5. Entropy balance in closed and open systems
4.1.6. Efficiency and Carnot factor
4.2. Conventional engine cycles
4.2.1. The Brayton cycle
4.2.1.1. Cycle overview
4.2.2. The Rankine cycle
4.2.2.1. Cycle overview
4.2.2.2. Typical types of units applied in the Rankine cycle
4.2.2.3. Rankine turbine/expander stage designs
4.2.3. The Otto and Diesel cycle
4.2.3.1. The Otto cycle
4.2.3.2. The Diesel cycle
4.2.3.3. Common fuels and opportunities for hydrogen
4.2.4. The combined cycle
4.2.4.1. Cycle overview
4.2.4.2. Hydrogen fuel for combustion gas turbines and combined cycles
4.2.5. Stirling cycle
4.2.5.1. Cycle overview
4.2.5.2. Operating principle of an ideal Stirling cycle
4.2.5.3. Non-ideality of a practical Stirling cycle
4.2.5.4. Performance of a Stirling engine
4.2.5.5. Final remarks
4.3. Emerging cycle innovations
4.3.1. Supercritical carbon dioxide cycles
4.3.1.1. Origin and renaissance of supercritical carbon dioxide power cycles
4.3.1.2. From gas turbines to supercritical carbon dioxide power cycles
4.3.1.3. Development of the technology
4.3.1.4. Working fluid
4.3.1.5. Working cycle
4.3.1.6. Large-scale demonstration of the technology and commercial deployment
4.3.2. Pressure gain combustion
4.3.2.1. Cycle overview
4.3.2.2. Analysis of the pressure gain combustion engine cycle
4.3.2.3. Physical principles of detonation
4.3.2.4. Detonation structure
4.3.2.5. Detonation initiation
4.3.2.6. Detonation-based engine configurations
4.3.2.7. Detonation engine architectures
4.3.2.8. Challenges and recent developments
4.3.3. Hybrid fuel cell cycles
References
Section B: Hydrogen applications and markets
Chapter 5: Supply processes and machinery
5.1. Introduction
5.2. The color of hydrogen
5.3. Coal gasification
5.4. Hydrogen reformation processes
5.4.1. Steam methane and auto thermal reforming
5.4.2. Efficiency of steam methane reforming
5.4.3. POx of methane
5.4.4. Final purification steps
5.4.5. Steam methane reforming plant
5.4.6. Functional schematic of a water electrolysis system
5.4.7. Alkaline electrolysis
5.4.7.1. Construction
5.4.7.2. Commercial alkaline electrolysis systems
5.4.7.3. Large-scale alkaline electrolysis systems
5.4.7.4. Proton exchange membrane electrolysis
5.4.7.5. Construction
5.4.7.6. Function
5.4.7.7. Power consumption
5.4.7.8. Characteristics and advantages
5.4.7.9. Large-scale PEM electrolysis
5.4.8. Alkaline exchange membrane (AEM)
5.4.8.1. Construction
5.4.8.2. Commercially available alkaline exchange membrane electrolyzers
Electrolyzer efficiency
5.4.9. Hydrogen pressure considerations
5.5. Emerging technologies
5.5.1. Photochemical
5.5.2. Thermochemical water splitting
5.6. Hydrogen natural gas mixture compatibility and separation options
References
Chapter 6: Transport and storage
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Pipeline transport
6.2.1. Hydrogen pipeline costs
6.2.2. Hydrogen compression
6.2.2.1. Compression applications
6.2.2.2. Combustion engines or electric motors as compressor drivers
6.2.2.3. Reciprocating and centrifugal compressors
6.3. Transport considerations for blue, turquoise, and green hydrogen
6.4. Shipping liquid hydrogen
6.5. Transport by trucks
6.5.1. Hydrogen transport by trucks
6.5.1.1. Compressed hydrogen trailer types
6.5.1.2. Compressed hydrogen trailer use and loading
6.5.1.3. Liquid hydrogen trucking
6.5.1.4. Liquid hydrogen loading and unloading
6.5.2. Transporting by barge or train
6.5.3. Transport economics
6.6. Hydrogen transport and storage with other chemicals
6.6.1. Liquid organic hydrogen carriers
6.6.2. Chemical absorption in metal hydrides
6.6.3. Physical adsorption and desorption
6.6.4. Ammonia
6.7. Hydrogen storage
6.7.1. Vehicle fuel tanks and pressure vessels
6.7.2. Liquid hydrogen
6.7.3. Liquefaction cost
6.7.4. Liquid hydrogen storage
6.7.5. Geological formations
References
Further reading
Chapter 7: Usage
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Hydrogen used to produce electricity-Power generation plants
7.2.1. Gas turbine operation in hydrogen
7.2.1.1. Package impacts
7.2.2. Fuel cell power generation
7.2.3. Gas engine power generation
7.2.4. Combustion issues
7.2.5. Safety issues
7.2.5.1. Flammability and explosively
7.2.5.2. Metal hydride formation
7.2.5.3. Static electricity and spark ignition
7.3. Automotive transportation
7.3.1. Hydrogen gas engine for automobiles
7.3.2. Fuel cell and hybrid vehicles
7.3.3. Fuel tanks and storage
7.4. Other transportation
7.4.1. Marine
7.4.1.1. Examples of current hydrogen fueled ships or vessels
Golden gate zero-emission marine hydrogen fuel cell vessel
Behydro engines and CMB.Techs Hydroville
7.4.2. Aviation
7.4.2.1. Examples of hydrogen-fueled planes and concept aircraft
Train/rail
7.4.3. Lite mobility
7.4.4. Other transportation
7.4.4.1. Lighter than air vehicles
7.4.4.2. Rocket propulsion
7.5. Refinery and chemical industry (including bio refinery and LNG)
7.6. Distribution
7.6.1. Pipelines
7.6.2. Fueling stations
7.6.2.1. Gaseous stations
7.6.2.2. Liquid stations
7.6.3. Distributed power
References
Further reading
Chapter 8: Economics of hydrogen fuel
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Hydrogen energy content
8.3. Present hydrogen price
8.4. Present hydrogen production
8.5. Arbitrage issues
8.6. Theoretical prices: Gray, blue, and green
8.7. Fuel cells vs. mechanical engines
8.8. Electrochemistry cost issues
8.9. Carbon sequestration cost issues
8.9.1. Petra nova
8.9.2. Shell quest
8.9.3. Port Arthur SMR
8.9.4. Gorgon
References
Section C: Machinery and heat engine design consideration
Chapter 9: Compressors and expanders
9.1. Centrifugal compressors
9.1.1. Gas property considerations
9.1.2. Limitations: Stage count, tip speed, rotordynamics
9.1.3. Rotordynamic effects
9.1.4. Hydrogen embrittlement of materials
9.1.5. Material selection for hydrogen applications
9.1.5.1. Metals for hydrogen service
9.1.5.2. Nonmetals for hydrogen service
9.1.5.3. Instrumentation for hydrogen service
9.1.6. Dry gas seals
9.1.7. Centrifugal compressor hydrogen applications
9.1.8. Combustion engines or electric motors as compressor drivers
9.1.9. Reciprocating and centrifugal compressors
9.1.10. Other services
9.1.11. Hydrogen recycle
9.2. Reciprocating compressors
9.2.1. Reciprocating compressor hydrogen applications
9.2.1.1. Hydrogen production
SMR hydrogen
Electrolyzer hydrogen
9.2.1.2. Hydrogen storage
Underground hydrogen storage
Tank or vessel storage
9.2.1.3. Refinery processes
9.2.1.4. Hydrodesulfurization
9.2.1.5. Hydrocracking
9.2.1.6. Hydrogen makeup and recycle
9.2.1.7. Hydrogen transmission
9.2.1.8. H2 pipeline
9.2.1.9. Hydrogen tube trailers
9.2.1.10. Hydrogen fueling
9.2.2. Lubricated versus nonlubricated cylinders
9.2.2.1. Discharge temperature limits
9.2.3. Hydrogen compressor packages-Typical requirements
9.2.4. Mechanical design
9.2.5. Reciprocating compressor valves
9.2.6. Reciprocating compressor operation
9.2.7. Reciprocating compressor unloading and capacity control
9.2.7.1. Load and flow control
Methods and devices for capacity control
Variable speed control
Suction throttling or pressure control
Discharge to suction recycling
9.2.7.2. Cylinder to suction bypass
9.2.7.3. Suction valve unloaders
9.2.7.4. Plug style unloader valves
9.2.7.5. Hollow piston unloader
9.2.7.6. Poppet unloader
9.2.7.7. Finger style unloaders
9.2.7.8. Valve assembly lifter
9.2.7.9. Added fixed clearance
9.2.7.10. Volume bottles
9.2.7.11. Added variable volume clearance
9.2.7.12. Added fixed volume clearance
9.2.8. Packing/seals/leakage management/purging
9.2.9. Reciprocating compressor materials of construction used in hydrogen service
Compressor Frame (Crankcase)
Crankshafts
Crossheads
Crosshead pins
Cylinder bodies
Cylinder liners (If used)
Pistons
Compressor Frame (Crankcase)
Packing and packing cases
9.2.10. Pulsation control for hydrogen mixtures
9.2.10.1. Introduction
9.2.10.2. Allowable pulsation levels according to the API 618 for reciprocating compressor systems
9.2.10.3. Pulsation mitigation measures: Damper and filter design
9.2.10.4. Example of pulsation bottle changes in H2 gas
9.2.10.5. Orifice plates
9.2.10.6. Side branch absorbers
9.2.10.7. Acoustic separation of (parts of) the system
9.2.10.8. Parallel running machines
9.2.11. Mechanical vibrations in pulsating flow with hydrogen mixtures
9.2.12. Energy Institute guidelines
9.2.12.1. Introduction
9.2.12.2. Quantitative assessment (technical module T1)
9.2.12.3. Qualitative assessment of mainline (technical module TM-02)
Flow-induced turbulence (section T2.2)
Mechanical excitation (section T2.3)
Pulsation: Reciprocating/positive displacement pumps and compressors (section T2.4)
Pulsation: Flow-induced excitation (section T2.6)
High frequency acoustic excitation (section T2.7)
Surge/momentum changes due to valve operation (section T2.8)
9.2.12.4. Quantitative assessment of SBCs (technical module TM-03)
9.2.12.5. Quantitative assessment of thermowells (technical module TM-04)
9.2.13. Flow measurement error due to pulsating flows
9.2.14. Torsional analysis of reciprocating compressors with hydrogen
9.2.15. Factory testing-Reciprocating compressors
9.3. Diaphragm compressors
9.4. Screw compressors
9.4.1. Oil-free screw compressors
9.4.2. Oil-free screw compressors with water injection
9.4.3. Oil-flooded screw compressors
9.4.4. Water-flooded screw compressors
9.5. Compressor station and pipeline considerations for hydrogen mixtures
9.6. Features of hydrogen turboexpanders
9.6.1. Basic physical properties of hydrogen
9.6.2. Types of turboexpanders
Axial flow turboexpanders
Radial inflow turboexpanders
Radial outflow turboexpanders
9.6.3. Comparison of fluids for gas liquefaction cycles turboexpanders
9.6.4. Comparison of hydrogen and helium turbines with the same parameters and characteristics
9.6.4.1. Turbine losses
9.6.5. Two-phase liquid and wet turboexpanders
9.7. Hydrogen liquefaction
9.7.1. Hydrogen pumps and applications
9.7.2. Challenges of hydrogen pumping and distinctions in pump design
9.7.3. Liquid hydrogen expanders
9.7.4. Advantages of using hydrogen hydraulic turbine-expanders in liquefaction and storage processes
9.7.5. Thermodynamic analysis of LH2 expansion through a J-T valve versus liquid expander
References
Further reading
Chapter 10: Power generation and mechanical drivers
10.1. Gas turbines (Rainer, Mounir, Goldmeer, Freund)
10.1.1. Gas turbines and combined cycles current state of the art
10.1.1.1. Cost of gas turbines
10.1.1.2. Gas turbine transition to hydrogen
10.1.1.3. Hydrogen sourcing, blending and fuel transition for gas turbines
10.1.2. Gas turbine combustion systems
10.1.2.1. Flame speed
10.1.2.2. Flame temperature
10.1.2.3. Combustion stability
10.1.2.4. Flammability range (lower explosion limit-LEL, upper explosion limit-UEL)
10.1.2.5. Gas group & maximum experimental safe gap (MESG)
10.1.2.6. Hydrogen diffusivity
10.1.2.7. Hydrogen embrittlement
10.1.3. Application for industrial gas turbines
10.1.4. Gas turbines configured with diffusion flame combustors
10.1.4.1. Combustion system
10.1.5. Package and balance of plant impacts
10.1.5.1. Gas turbines configured with lean premixed (DLE and DLN) combustion systems
10.1.5.2. Lean premixed combustion systems
10.1.6. Combustion testing
10.1.6.1. Package impacts
10.1.6.2. CO2 emissions reduction
10.1.7. Pipeline transportation
10.1.7.1. Hydrogen gas properties relevant for pipeline transport
10.2. Gas engines
10.2.1. General principles
10.2.1.1. Efficiency and the current state of the art for gas engines
10.2.1.2. Cost of gas engines
10.2.2. Power output of hydrogen engines
10.2.3. Lean/rich burn considerations
10.2.4. The fuel system
10.2.5. Fuel regulation
10.2.6. The ignition system
10.2.7. Turbocharging and air system
10.2.8. After-treatment system
10.2.9. Effects of hydrogen on materials
10.2.10. Gas engine oils
10.3. Risks associated with hydrogen power generation equipment
10.3.1. Flammability
10.3.2. Flame speed
10.3.3. Ignition potential and energy
10.3.4. Leakage sources and impact
10.3.5. Material compatibility
10.3.6. Embrittlement
References
Further reading
Section D: Materials and safety considerations
Chapter 11: Materials for the hydrogen economy
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Hydrogen interactions and effects on material performance
11.3. Characterization of hydrogen solubility, trapping, and transport in metals
11.4. LTDMS analysis
11.4.1. Calibration and accuracy
11.4.2. Exemplary results for type 304/304L stainless steel under high-pressure hydrogen
11.4.3. Results for high strength steels under a hydrogen environment
11.5. Materials for high-pressure hydrogen compression and transportation
11.5.1. Discussion
11.6. Magnetic materials and bonding agents for hydrogen machinery
11.6.1. Example scenario emphasizing the importance of an appropriate coating on neodymium
11.6.2. Example testing of bonding agent in pressurized hydrogen
11.6.3. Case study: Coating irregularities and failure
References
Chapter 12: Safety
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Operational issues
12.2.1. Generation and transport operating procedures
12.2.1.1. Static electricity and spark ignition-Purging becomes more critical
12.2.2. Area classification
12.2.3. Gas and fire detection; Sensing
12.2.4. Leak checks
12.3. Safety events and lessons learned
12.3.1. Explosion and fire risks
12.3.2. Leakage
12.3.3. Equipment failure leads to explosion
12.4. Codes and standards
12.4.1. Hydrogen storage
12.4.1.1. Pressurized storage
12.4.1.2. Liquid storage
12.4.1.3. Metal hydride hydrogen storage
12.4.2. Piping
12.4.3. Venting
12.4.4. Hydrogen generation and separation
12.4.5. Hydrogen embrittlement
12.4.6. Electric devices for use around hydrogen
12.4.7. ANSI/UL 60079 explosive atmospheres
12.4.8. Hydrogen as a vehicular fuel
12.4.8.1. Pressurized vehicle storage tanks
12.4.8.2. Cryogenic vehicle storage tanks
12.4.8.3. Ancillary fuel system components
12.4.8.4. Fueling locations and equipment
12.4.8.5. Fuel quality and detection
12.4.9. Miscellaneous
References
Section E: Research and testing
Chapter 13: Major test facilities, pilot plants, and R&D projects
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Hydrogen test facilities and R&D programs in the United States
13.2.1. Hydrogen compressor test loop at Southwest Research Institute (Buddy Broerman)
13.2.2. Gas turbine combustion test facility at Southwest Research Institute (Griffin Beck)
13.2.3. Hydrogen Infrastructure Testing and Research Facility (HITRF) (Michael Marshall)
13.3. Hydrogen test facilities and R&D programs in Spain and other European countries (Eugenio Trillo León)
13.3.1. Spain
13.3.1.1. Centro Nacional del Hidrógeno-CNH2
Projects
Green Hysland
FCH2RAIL
Advanced materials and reactors for energy through ammonia (ARENHA)
H2PORTS
Facilities
Alkaline electrolyzers laboratory
Storage laboratory
PEM research and scale-up laboratory
Power electronics laboratory
Microgrids laboratory
Simulation lab
Materials characterization laboratory
Solid oxide technologies laboratory
PEM technology testing laboratory
Vehicle laboratory
Hydrogen biotechnology laboratory
13.3.1.2. Fundación de Hidrógeno de Aragón-FHA
Activities
Research and development (R&D)
Innovation
Projects
Higgs
BIGHIT
DEMO4GRID
ELY4OFF
ELYNTEGRATION
ELYGRID
13.4. Hydrogen test facilities and R&D projects in Japan
13.4.1. Overview of test facilities
13.4.1.1. Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)
13.4.1.2. Noshiro Rocket Testing Center (JAXA)
13.4.1.3. Hydrogen Energy Product Research and Testing Center (HyTReC)
13.4.1.4. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicle safety evaluation test facility (JARI/Hy-SEF)
13.4.1.5. Hydrogen Technical Center (HySUT_HTC)
13.4.2. Overview of research and development projects
13.4.2.1. Fukushima hydrogen energy research field (FH2R)
13.4.2.2. Yamanashi P2G system technology development
13.4.2.3. Kobe hydrogen cogeneration system development project
13.4.2.4. Construction of international hydrogen supply chain by methylcyclohexane
13.4.2.5. Construction of international hydrogen supply chain by liquefied hydrogen
13.4.2.6. Green innovation fund project
References
Chapter 14: Novel and leading-edge technology development
14.1. Hydrogen from solar thermal energy
14.1.1. Semiconductor-based technologies
14.1.1.1. Photovoltaic cells
14.1.1.2. The current state of photovoltaic cells
14.1.1.3. Electrolyzers
14.1.1.4. Combined photovoltaic and electrolyzer systems
14.1.2. Photoelectrochemical-based technologies
14.1.3. Photobiological-based technologies
14.2. Hydrogen from wind energy
14.3. Hydrogen from nuclear energy
14.4. Hydrogen from hydropower
14.5. Hydrogen from tidal power
14.6. Hydrogen from oceanic thermal energy conversion
14.7. Alternative hydrogen carriers
14.7.1. Ammonia
14.7.2. Methanol
14.7.3. Formic acid
14.8. Advanced compressors and valves
14.8.1. Linear motor reciprocating compressor
14.8.2. Modular reed valves for reciprocating compressors
14.9. Advances in heat exchangers: High-temperature and high-pressure heat exchangers for high efficiency and light energ ...
14.9.1. Opportunities and challenges with high temperatures
14.9.2. Opportunities and challenges with high operating pressures
14.9.3. Materials challenges
14.9.4. Manufacturing challenges and overall performance expectations
14.9.5. ARPA-E HITEMMP program
References
Chapter 15: Green hydrogen market and growth
15.1. The hydrogen market
15.1.1. Captive and merchant hydrogen
15.1.2. Hydrogen demand growth
15.1.3. Hydrogen transport costs
15.2. Green and low-carbon hydrogen
15.2.1. Green hydrogen prices
15.3. The EU hydrogen strategy-A phased approach
15.4. Fundamentals of hydrogen production through water electrolysis
15.5. Technical feasibility of the EU targets for 2024 and 2030: Hydrogen generation capacity
15.6. Requirements for additional renewable power generation capacity and stress on market deployment
15.7. Discussion
15.8. Economic considerations about the impact of renewable energy deployment on the price of electricity (and hydrogen)
15.9. Conclusion
References
Nomenclature
Index
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