Lignocellulosic Biomass Refining for Second Generation Biofuel Production

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Editors
Contributors
Chapter 1 Physical and Physicochemical Pretreatment Methods for Lignocellulosic Biomass Conversion
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Lignocellulose
1.1.2 Need for Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass
1.2 Types of Pretreatments for Lignocellulosic Biomass
1.3 Pretreatment Methods
1.3.1 Physical Methods
1.3.1.1 Extrusion
1.3.1.2 Milling
1.3.1.3 Microwave
1.3.1.4 Ultrasound
1.3.1.5 Torrefaction
1.3.1.6 Pulsed Electric Field
1.3.1.7 Chipping
1.3.1.8 Briquetting
1.3.1.9 Pelletization
1.3.2 The Chemical Pretreatment Process
1.3.2.1 Acid Pretreatment
1.3.2.2 Ozonolysis
1.3.2.3 Organosoly
1.3.2.4 Ionic Liquids
1.3.2.5 Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents
1.4 Physiochemical Methods
1.4.1 Steam Explosion
1.4.2 Ammonia Fiber Expansion
1.4.3 CO[sub(2)] Explosion
1.4.4 SPORL Method
1.4.5 WET Oxidation
1.4.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Physicochemical Pretreatment Methods
1.4.7 Recent Advancements in Physicochemical Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass
1.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2 Biorefining Processes for Valorization of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Sustainable Production of Value-Added Products
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass
2.3 Biorefinery Process
2.3.1 Pretreatment Methods of LB
2.3.1.1 Physical Methods
2.3.1.2 Chemical Methods
2.3.1.3 Physicochemical Methods
2.3.1.4 Biological Methods
2.3.2 Hydrolysis
2.3.3 Fermentation Process
2.4 Value-Added Products
2.4.1 Citric Acid
2.4.2 Succinic Acid
2.4.3 Lactic Acid
2.4.4 Hydroxymethylfurfural
2.4.5 Levulinic Acid
2.4.6 Sorbitol
2.4.7 Xylitol
2.4.8 Furfural
2.4.9 Acetic Acid
2.4.10 Lignin-Based Phenols/Polymers
2.4.11 Bioplastics
2.5 Challenges in the Commercialization of Lignocellulose Biorefinery
2.5.1 Scale-Up Challenges
2.5.2 Technical Challenges
2.5.3 Economic Challenges
2.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 3 Inhibitors and Microbial Tolerance during Fermentation of Biofuel Production
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Breakdown of Cellulose and Production of Biofuel
3.3 Inhibition and its Role in the Fermentation of Biofuel
3.4 Type of Inhibitors
3.4.1 Process Inhibitors (Derived From Pretreatment)
3.4.1.1 Short-Chain Aliphatic Acids
3.4.1.2 Phenolic Compounds
3.4.1.3 Furan Aldehydes
3.4.1.4 Ionic Liquids
3.4.2 Inherent Inhibitors (Derived From Biofuel Fermentation)
3.4.2.1 Alcohols
3.4.2.2 Long-Chain Fatty Acids
3.4.2.3 Alkanes/Alkenes
3.5 Mechanism of Inhibition
3.6 Microbial Tolerance
3.6.1 Concept of Microbial Tolerance and its Role in Biofuel Production
3.6.2 Mechanism and Strategies for Enhancing Microbial Tolerance
3.6.2.1 Random Mutagenesis
3.6.2.2 Adaptive Laboratory Evolution
3.6.2.3 In Situ Detoxification
3.6.2.4 Heat Shock Proteins
3.6.2.5 Efflux Pumps
3.6.2.6 Membrane Modifications
3.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4 The Role of Metabolic Engineering in the Development of 2G Biofuels (Both in Conversion and Fermentation)
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Metabolic Engineering for Biofuel Processes
4.2.1 Bacterial Metabolic Engineering
4.2.2 Molecular Biology in Bacterial Metabolic Engineering
4.2.3 Importance and Significance of Bacterial Metabolic Engineering in Biomass Conversion
4.2.4 Bioethanol Production Using Bioengineered Bacterial Strains
4.2.5 Butanol Production Using Bioengineered Bacterial Strains
4.3 Metabolic Engineering of Some Common Model Organisms
4.3.1 Clostridium Cellulolyticum
4.3.2 Klebsiella Pneumoniae
4.3.3 Lactobacillus Casei
4.3.4 Actinobacteria
4.4 Fungal Metabolic Engineering
4.5 Challenges in Scale-Up Fermentation
4.6 Present Status and Future Prospects of Bacterial Metabolic Engineering
4.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5 Fermentation of Hydrolysate Derived From Lignocellulose Biomass Toward Biofuels Production
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Structural Organization of Lignocellulosic Biomass
5.3 Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Feedstock
5.3.1 Classification of Pretreatment
5.3.1.1 Chemical Pretreatment
5.3.1.2 Ozonolysis
5.3.1.3 Organosolv
5.3.1.4 Ionic Liquids
5.3.1.5 Oxidative Delignification
5.3.1.6 Physical Pretreatment
5.3.1.7 Biological Pretreatment
5.3.1.8 Physicochemical Pretreatment
5.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
5.5 Fermentation
5.5.1 Fermentative Techniques
5.5.1.1 Consolidated Bioprocessing Approach
5.5.1.2 Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation
5.5.1.3 Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation
5.6 Inhibition and Detoxification of Lignocellulosic Hydrolysates
5.6.1 Inhibition of Lignocellulosic Hydrolysates
5.6.2 Types of Inhibitors and their Inhibitory Effects
5.6.2.1 Sugar-Derived Aldehydes
5.6.2.2 Aromatic Compounds
5.6.2.3 Short-Chain Organic Acids
5.7 Detoxification of Inhibitors
5.7.1 Physical Methods
5.7.2 Chemical Methods
5.7.3 Biological Methods
5.8 Extraction of Biobutanol
5.8.1 Immobilized and Cell Recycle Continuous Bioreactors
5.8.2 Gas Stripping
5.8.3 Pervaporation
5.8.4 Liquid–Liquid Extraction
5.8.5 Perstraction
5.8.6 Reverse Osmosis
5.8.7 Adsorption
5.9 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 6 Rector Configurations for Thermochemical Conversion of Lignocellulosic Biomass
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass Conversion Technologies
6.3 Pyrolysis Reactor Configurations
6.3.1 Fluidized Bed Reactor with Internal Gas Bubbling
6.3.2 Circulating Fluidized Bed Reactor
6.3.3 Auger Pyrolysis Reactor
6.3.4 Vacuum Pyrolysis
6.3.5 Ablative Pyrolysis Reactors
6.4 Factors Influencing Pyrolysis Reactor Selection
6.5 Gasification – Basic Terminologies and Concepts
6.5.1 Steps Involved in the Gasification Process
6.6 Reactors for Gasification Process
6.6.1 Updraft Gasification Reactor
6.6.2 Downdraft Gasification Reactor
6.6.3 Bubbling Fluidized Bed Reactor
6.6.4 Circulating Fluidized Bed Gasification Reactor
6.6.5 Entrained Flow Gasification Reactor
6.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7 Advanced Pretreatment Process for Lignocellulosic Biomass
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Chemistry of Lignocellulose
7.2.1 Structure of Lignocellulose
7.2.1.1 Chemical Structure of Cellulose
7.2.1.2 Chemical Structure of Hemicellulose
7.2.1.3 Chemical Structure of Lignin
7.2.2 Various Pretreatment Methods
7.2.2.1 Physical Pretreatments
7.2.2.2 Chemical Pretreatments
7.2.2.3 Biological Pretreatment
7.2.2.4 Physicochemical Pretreatment
7.2.3 Advances in Pretreatment Technologies
7.2.4 Ionic Liquids
7.2.4.1 ILs in Biomass Conversion
7.2.4.2 Dissolution of Biomass in ILs
7.2.5 Deep Eutectic Solvents
7.2.5.1 Deep Eutectic Solvents in Biomass Conversion
7.2.5.2 Dissolution of Biomass in DESs
7.2.6 Supercritical Fluids
7.2.6.1 Supercritical Fluids in Biomass Conversion
7.2.6.2 Supercritical Water
7.2.6.3 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide
7.2.7 Cosolvent
7.2.8 Challenges in Energy Production From Lignocellulose
References
Chapter 8 Ionic Liquids as Solvents for Separation of Biobutanol
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Biofuels and Biochemicals (Global Energy Scenarios)
8.1.2 Biobutanol
8.1.3 Comparison of Butanol Over Other Fuels
8.2 Production Approaches for Butanol
8.2.1 Chemical Synthesis
8.2.1.1 Oxo Synthesis
8.2.1.2 Reppe Synthesis
8.2.1.3 Crotonaldehyde Hydrogenation
8.2.2 Fermentation
8.2.2.1 Acetone, Butanol and Ethanol (ABE) Fermentation
8.3 Separation of Valuable Biochemicals
8.3.1 Biobutanol Separation
8.3.2 Adsorption
8.3.3 Gas Stripping
8.3.4 Pervaporation
8.3.5 Liquid-Liquid Extraction
8.4 Green Methods for the Separation of Butanol
8.4.1 Ionic Liquids: A Brief History
8.4.2 Applications of Ionic Liquids
8.4.2.1 Cellulose Processing
8.4.2.2 Hydrogenation Reaction
8.4.2.3 Biobutanol Separation
8.5 Possible Hypothetical Mechanism for Biobutanol Separation Using Ionic Liquids
8.6 Commercial Aspect
8.7 Discussion and Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 9 Intensification in Bioethanol Production and Separation
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Bioethanol
9.3 Classification of Bioethanol
9.3.1 First-Generation Bioethanol
9.3.2 Second-Generation Bioethanol
9.3.3 Third-Generation Bioethanol
9.4 Process Intensification
9.4.1 Principles of Process Intensification
9.4.2 Process Intensification for Bioethanol Production
9.5 Biomass Pretreatment Alternatives
9.5.1 Physical Treatment Methods
9.5.1.1 Mechanical Comminution
9.5.1.2 Extrusion
9.5.1.3 Microwave Irradiation (Dielectric Heating)
9.5.1.4 Ultrasonication
9.5.1.5 Electron Beam Irradiation
9.5.2 Physicochemical Pretreatment
9.5.2.1 Alkali Pretreatment
9.5.2.2 Alkaline Peroxide Pretreatment
9.5.2.3 Acid Pretreatment
9.5.2.4 Organosolv Pretreatment
9.5.2.5 Steam Explosion Pretreatment
9.5.2.6 Wet Oxidation
9.5.2.7 Ammonia Fiber Explosion Method
9.5.2.8 CO[sub(2)] Explosion (Supercritical CO[sub(2)])
9.5.2.9 SO[sub(2)] Explosion
9.5.2.10 Ionic Liquids
9.5.3 Biological Pretreatment
9.6 Biomass Hydrolysis or Saccharification
9.6.1 Acid Hydrolysis
9.6.2 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
9.7 Fermentation
9.8 Integration of Hydrolysis and Fermentation
9.8.1 Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation
9.8.2 Separate Hydrolysis and Co-Fermentation
9.8.3 Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation
9.8.4 Simultaneous Saccharification and Co-Fermentation
9.8.5 Consolidated Bioprocessing
9.9 Integration of Production and Separation
9.9.1 Conventional Distillation
9.9.2 High-Temperature Fermentation with Vacuum Distillation
9.9.3 Azeotropic Distillation
9.9.4 Extractive Distillation
9.9.5 Pressure-Swing Distillation
9.9.6 Reactive Distillation
9.9.7 Adsorption
9.9.8 Adsorption–Distillation
9.9.9 Molecular Sieve Adsorption Distillation
9.9.10 Reverse Osmosis
9.9.11 Pervaporation
9.9.12 Fermentation–Pervaporation
9.9.13 Distillation–Pervaporation
9.9.14 Membrane Liquid Extraction
9.9.15 Vapor Permeation
9.9.16 Distillation–Membrane Separation
9.9.17 Mechanical Vapor–Recompression Distillation with Membrane Vapor Permeation
9.9.18 Liquid–Liquid Extraction
9.9.19 Supercritical Approach
9.9.20 Salt Separations
9.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10 Pervaporation as a Promising Approach for Recovery of Bioethanol
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Bioethanol
10.2.1 Characteristics of Bioethanol (Pejó, 2020)
10.2.2 Advantages of Bioethanol (Hilmioglu, 2009)
10.2.3 Disadvantages of Bioethanol (Hilmioglu, 2009)
10.3 Production of Bioethanol
10.3.1 Pathways and Microorganisms for Bioethanol
10.3.2 Mode for Fermentation
10.3.3 Typical Production Process
10.4 Downstream Processing for Bioethanol Production
10.4.1 Membrane Filtration
10.4.2 Distillation
10.4.3 Azeotropic Distillation
10.4.4 Extractive Distillation
10.4.5 Membrane Distillation
10.4.6 Pervaporation
10.4.7 Gas Stripping
10.4.8 Vacuum Fermentation
10.4.9 Adsorption
10.4.10 Liquid–Liquid Extraction
10.4.11 Reverse Osmosis
10.4.12 Vapor Permeation
10.4.13 Comparison of Separation Processes
10.5 Pervaporation for Bioethanol Production
10.5.1 Basics of Pervaporation
10.5.2 Application
10.5.3 Ethanol Mass Transfer in Pervaporation
10.5.4 Ethanol Mass Transport Model for Pervaporation
10.5.4.1 Solution–Diffusion Model
10.5.4.2 Pore Flow Model
10.5.5 Pervaporation Configuration
10.5.6 Pervaporation Membrane for Bioethanol Separation
10.5.6.1 Polymeric Membrane
10.5.6.2 Inorganic Membrane
10.5.6.3 Mixed Matrix Membranes
10.5.7 Pervaporation as a Green Process
10.5.8 Advantages of Pervaporation
10.5.9 Disadvantages of Pervaporation
10.5.10 Mode of Operation
10.5.11 Membrane Modules
10.6 Fermentation with Pervaporation for Bioethanol Production
10.6.1 Fermentation–Pervaporation
10.6.2 Ethanol Fermentation Coupled with Pervaporation
10.6.3 Ethanol Fermentation with Thermo-pervaporation
10.6.4 Pervaporation with Closed Heat Pump
10.6.5 Pervaporation with Dephlegmation Fractional Condenser
10.6.6 Pervaporation for Recovery and Dehydration
10.7 Discussion
References
Chapter 11 Production of High-Performance/Aviation Fuels From Lignocellulosic Biomass
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Feedstock
11.3 Production Processes
11.3.1 Overview of Lignocellulosics-to-Biojet Fuel Conversion Technologies
11.3.2 Biochemical Conversion
11.3.2.1 The Sugars-to-Alcohol Fermentation Route (ATJ)
11.3.2.2 The Sugars-to-Biogas Anaerobic Digestion Route
11.3.2.3 The Direct Sugar Fermentation Conversion Route
11.3.2.4 Sugars Conversion Through Aqueous Phase Reforming and Hydrogenolysis
11.3.3 Thermochemical Conversion
11.3.3.1 Pyrolysis
11.3.3.2 Gasification
11.3.3.3 Torrefaction
11.3.3.4 Hydrothermal Liquefaction
11.4 Lignocellulosic Valorization Products Upgrading to Biojet Fuel
11.4.1 Upgrading Pyrolytic and Gasification Products Through Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis
11.4.1.1 Syncrude Upgrading Processes
11.4.2 Catalysts in Lignocellulosics Conversion to Biojet Fuels
11.5 Status and Ongoing Projects
11.6 Gaps and Future Perspectives
11.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12 Role of Thermophilic Microorganisms and Thermostable Enzymes in 2G Biofuel Production
12.1 Thermostable Enzymes in Lignocellulose Hydrolysis
12.1.1 Cellulose in Enzymatic Hydrolysis
12.1.2 Thermostable Cellulases
12.2 Thermostable Cellulases in Ethanol Production
12.3 Genetic Engineering for the Thermostable Cellulolytic and Xylanolytic Enzymes
12.4 Molecular Mechanisms of Interactions Between Enzyme and Lignocellulosic Biomass
12.5 Mechanism of Enzyme Adsorption
12.6 Application of Thermostable Cellulolytic and Xylanolytic Enzymes
References
Index