Lifecycles of Pathogenic Protists in Humans

Preface
Contents
Life Cycle of Pathogenic Protists: Trypanosoma cruzi
1 Introduction
2 Description of the Forms Found in the Respective Hosts
2.1 Mammalian Host
2.2 Invertebrate Host
3 Reproduction of the Cycle In Vitro
3.1 Axenic Cultures
3.2 Cell Cultures
4 Proteomic Analysis of the Various Developmental Stages
5 Morphological Description of the Forms Based on Light and Electron Microscopy
5.1 The Cell Surface
5.2 The Flagellum
5.2.1 The Flagellar Membrane
5.2.2 The Flagellar-Cell Body Adhesion
5.2.3 The Axoneme
5.2.4 The Paraflagellar Rod (PFR)
5.3 Cytoplasmic Microtubules
5.4 Other Components of the Cytoskeleton
5.5 Ribosomes and P Bodies
5.6 Kinetoplast-Mitochondrion
5.6.1 Mitochondrion
5.6.2 The Kinetoplast
5.7 Glycosome
5.8 Acidocalcisome
5.9 Contractile Vacuole
5.10 Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Complex
5.11 Lipid Bodies
5.12 Endocytic Pathway
5.13 Exocytic Pathway Including Exosomes/Microvesicles
5.14 Nucleus
6 Trypanosoma Cruzi-Host Cell Interaction
References
Progress in Research on African Trypanosomes: Highlights from an Exceptional Decade
1 Introduction
2 The Elegance of a Parasitic Trypanosome Cell
2.1 Trypanosoma brucei General Cell Biology
2.2 The Flagellum: A 700-Piece Jigsaw
2.3 Putting Pieces Together, Procedure and Timing
2.4 Perspectives
3 Decoding the Trypanosome Genome: The Impact of `Omics´
3.1 Genome Architecture
3.2 Chromatin Structure and Transcriptional Control
3.3 Codon Bias
3.4 Transcriptomics
3.5 Perspectives
4 The Amazing Journey of African Trypanosomes in the Tsetse Fly
4.1 A Ticket for the Next Host
4.1.1 The Strange Case of Dr Epi and Mr Trypo
4.1.2 Two Asymmetric Divisions
4.1.3 T. brucei, the Transformist
4.1.4 Open Bar
4.2 A Hostile Environment
4.2.1 The Fly Immune Response
4.2.2 The Third Players
4.2.3 The Wall
4.3 Good Manners in Trypanosomes
4.3.1 Social Motility or Collective Swarming?
4.3.2 Let´s Talk About Sex
4.4 Perspectives
5 African Trypanosomiasis: An Infinite Interplay with the Mammalian Host
5.1 Antigenic Variation: Surface Coat Remodelling and the Humoral Immune Response
5.2 Trypanolytic Factors: Innate Mechanisms of Resistance
5.3 Quorum Sensing: Cell-Cell Communication
5.4 Overlooked Parasite Tropisms
5.5 In the Dermis: From the Shadow to the Light
5.6 Other Niches?
6 Conclusions
References
Leishmania and Their Vertebrate Host Cells
1 Introduction
1.1 Leishmaniasis
2 Biology of Leishmania spp.
3 Leishmania spp. Host Cells
3.1 Macrophages
3.2 Neutrophils
3.3 Dendritic Cells
3.4 Fibroblasts
3.5 Other Cell Types
4 Cell Invasion Mechanisms by Leishmania spp.
4.1 Phagocytosis
4.1.1 Living Within the Endocytic Pathway: Parasite Location and Modulation of Host Cell Trafficking by Leishmania spp.
4.2 Lysosome-Mediated Entry of Leishmania Promastigotes in Non-phagocytic Cells
References
The Actual Knowledge of the Biology of the Leishmania-Sandfly Vector Interaction
1 Introduction
2 Critical Points for the Development of Leishmania Parasites in the Sandfly Digestive Tract: The Escape from the Digestive En...
3 Critical Points for the Development of Leishmania Parasites in the Sandfly Digestive Tract: Crossing the Peritrophic Matrix ...
4 Nature Field Versus Laboratory Permissive Sandfly Vectors
5 Critical Points for the Development of Leishmania Parasites in the Sandfly Digestive Tract: The Parasite Adhesion to the Mid...
6 The Leishmania Metacyclogenesis in the Sandfly Midgut: Differentiation of Procyclic to Metacyclic Promastigotes, the Vertebr...
7 The Role of the Sandfly Saliva in the Leishmania Transmission to the Vertebrate Host
8 The Effects of a Second Blood Meal on the Parasite Development in the Sandlfy Vector
9 Mainly Events and Mechanisms of Leishmania Transmission
10 The Interference of the Sandfly Midgut Microbiota in the Leishmania Parasite Infection and Transmission
References
Plasmodium: Vertebrate Host
1 Introduction
2 Life Cycle in the Vertebrate Host
2.1 Pre-erythrocytic Phase
2.2 Erytrocytic Phase
3 Morphological Description of the Assexual Development Stages
3.1 Merozoite
3.2 Ring (Early Trophozoite)
3.3 Trophozoite
3.4 Schizont
3.5 Gametocytes
3.6 Sporozoite
4 Reproduction of the Cycle In Vitro
5 Physiology and Biochemistry
5.1 Energetic Metabolism and Digestion
5.2 Heme Biomineralization and ROS Detoxification
5.3 Apicoplast and Parasite Host Metabolism
5.4 Plasmodium spp. Modulation of Host Cytoplasm and Cell Surface
5.5 Liver Stages
5.6 Sexual Stages
6 Transcriptomics and Proteomics
6.1 Transcriptomics
6.1.1 Intraerythrocytic Developmental Cycle
6.1.1.1 Microarray Studies
6.1.1.2 Next-Generation Sequencing
6.1.2 Liver Stages
6.1.3 Transcriptional Regulation of Gametocytogenesis
6.2 Proteomics
6.2.1 Sexual Stages
6.2.2 Liver stages
6.2.3 Subcellular Structures
6.3 Future Perspectives
References
Cellular and Molecular Interactions of Plasmodium with Mosquito Vectors
1 Introduction
2 Malaria Life Cycle in the Mosquito Vectors
3 Compartmental Sites of Plasmodium Development
3.1 Midgut Lumen
3.1.1 Host Complement
3.1.2 The Midgut Microbiota
3.1.3 Peritrophic Matrix
3.2 Mosquito Midgut Epithelium
3.2.1 Recognition of Surface Proteins of the Mosquito Midgut
3.2.2 Midgut Epitelial Cell Invasion
3.2.3 Changes in Midgut Epithelium after Plasmodium Invasion
3.2.4 The Main Immune Pathways Against Plasmodium
3.3 Plasmodium Journey in the Hemocele
3.3.1 Melanization as Mosquito Defense
3.3.2 Hemocyte-Mediated Phagocytosis
3.3.3 Release of Sporozoites from Oocysts
3.4 Salivary Gland Invasion by Plasmodium
4 Conclusion
References
Cryptosporidium
1 Introduction
2 Cryptosporidium Species and Host Specificity
2.1 Cryptosporidium Infection and Zoonotic Transmission
2.1.1 Genotyping Cryptosporidium parvum and C. hominis
2.1.2 Cryptosporidium parvum
2.1.3 Cryptosporidium hominis
2.1.4 Zoonosis in other Cryptosporidium Species
3 Developmental Life Cycle of Cryptosporidium
4 Morphological Description of Cryptosporidium Species
4.1 Oocysts
4.2 Endogenous Life Stages
5 Cryptosporidium `Omics
5.1 Transcriptomics
5.2 Proteomics
5.3 Metabolomics
6 The Status-Quo in Cryptosporidium Research
6.1 In Vitro Culturing of Cryptosporidium
6.1.1 Three-Dimensional Culturing
6.2 Genetic Manipulation of Cryptosporidium
6.2.1 Gene Silencing Using RNA Interference
6.3 Anti-Cryptosporidium Drug Development
7 Conclusion
References
Toxoplasma gondii: Asexual Cycle in the Intermediate Host
1 Introduction
2 Tachyzoites
2.1 Morphologic Description
2.1.1 The Parasitophorous Vacuole
2.1.2 Nucleus, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi and Mitochondrion
2.1.3 Apicoplast
2.1.4 Micronemes
2.1.5 Rhoptries
2.1.6 Dense Granules
2.1.7 Inner Membrane Complex
2.1.8 Apical Pole Complex, Basal Complex and the Cytoskeleton
2.2 Cell Cycle
3 Bradyzoites
3.1 Morphologic Description
3.1.1 Cyst Wall and PV
3.1.2 Dense Granules
3.1.3 Rhoptries and Micronemes
3.1.4 Amylopectin Granules
3.2 Cell Cycle and Differentiation
4 Concluding Remarks
References
Toxoplasma gondii: Detailed Description of the Coccidian (Asexual and Sexual) Development and Oocyst Sporulation
1 History
2 Life Cycle
3 Development in the Definitive Host
3.1 Asexual Development
3.2 Sexual Development
3.2.1 Microgametogony
3.2.2 Macrogametogony
3.2.3 Oocyst Wall Formation
4 Oocyst Development
4.1 Sporulation
4.2 Oocyst Excystation
5 Concluding Remarks
References
Entamoeba histolytica and Entamoeba dispar
1 Host Range and Lifecycle
2 Entamoeba histolytica. The Trophozoite
2.1 The Cytoplasm
2.2 The Nucleus
2.3 The Cyst
3 Pathogenic Factors
3.1 Lectins
3.2 Amebapores
3.3 Proteases
3.4 Adhesion
3.5 Locomotion
4 Entamoeba dispar
References
Cell Biology of the Life Cycle of Giardia intestinalis
1 Introduction
2 Transmission
3 Morphological Description of the Forms Based on Light and Electron Microscopy
3.1 Trophozoite
3.1.1 Cell Surface
3.1.2 Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Complex
3.1.3 Mitosomes
3.1.3.1 Size and Distribution
3.1.3.2 Mitosomes and Mitochondria: Similarities and Differences
3.1.3.3 Mitosomes Division
3.1.3.4 Mitosomes and Endoplasmic Reticulum
3.1.4 Glycogen Particles
3.1.5 Lipid Bodies
3.1.6 Peroxisomes
3.1.7 Peripheral Vesicles and the Endocytic Pathway
3.1.8 Exocytic Pathway
3.1.9 The Cytoskeleton
3.1.9.1 The Flagella
3.1.9.2 Ventral Disc
3.1.9.3 Median Body
3.1.9.4 Funis
3.1.9.5 Other Components of the Cytoskeleton
3.1.10 The Nuclei
3.1.10.1 The Nuclear Envelope
3.1.10.2 Nucleolus
3.2 Trophozoite Division
3.2.1 Flagella Reorganization During Giardia Mitosis
3.2.2 The Ventral Disc During Division
3.2.3 The Median Body in Mitotic Cells
3.2.4 Nuclei Division
3.3 The Cyst
3.3.1 Nuclei in Cysts
4 Trophozoite-Cyst Transformation (Encystation Process)
4.1 Flagella During Encystation
4.2 Mitosomes During Encystation
5 Cyst-Trophozoite Transformation (Excystation Process)
6 Reproduction of the Life Cycle In Vitro
6.1 Growth Medium for G. intestinalis Trophozoites
6.2 Cryopreservation of G. intestinalis Trophozoites
7 Biochemical and Physiological Data on the Developmental Stages
7.1 Carbohydrate Metabolism
7.2 Lipid Metabolism
7.3 Amino Acid Metabolism
8 Genomic Analysis
9 Transcriptomic Analysis
10 Gene Interference
11 Luciferase-Expressing Giardia
12 Proteomic Analysis
13 Perspectives
References
Trichomonas vaginalis: Lifestyle, Cellular Biology, and Molecular Mechanisms of Pathogenesis
1 Part 1: Introduction
2 Part 2: Trichomoniasis; Disease and Outcomes
2.1 Effects on Women
2.2 Effects on Reproductive Outcome and Neonates
2.3 Effects on Men
2.4 Transmission
2.5 Diversity of Strains
3 Part 3: The Cell Structure and Biology of T. vaginalis
3.1 Structural Features and Dimension
3.1.1 Flagella and Cytoskeleton-Related Structures
3.1.2 Axostyle
3.1.3 Parabasal Apparatus
3.1.4 Dimensions
3.2 Organelles and Metabolism
3.2.1 Golgi Apparatus
3.2.2 Endoplasmic Reticulum
3.2.3 Nucleus and the Mastigont System
3.2.4 Hydrogenosomes
3.3 Cell Division
3.4 T. vaginalis omics: Genome, Epigenetics, and Gene Expression
3.4.1 The T. vaginalis Genome
3.4.2 Epigenomics
3.4.3 Transcriptomics
4 Part 4: Host-Parasite Interactions
4.1 T. vaginalis Cytoadherence and Host Cell Killing
4.1.1 Morphology and Dynamics of T. vaginalis in Contact with Host Cells
4.1.2 Mechanisms of Cytoadherence-Dependent and Independent Host Cell Killing
4.1.3 A Closer Examination of Host Cell Death Induced by T. vaginalis
4.1.3.1 Host Cell Apoptosis
4.1.3.2 Host Cell Pyroptosis
4.1.3.3 Haemolysis
4.1.3.4 Lymphocyte Lysis
4.2 T. vaginalis Extracellular Vesicles
4.3 Host Immune Responses to T. vaginalis and Immune-Evasion by the Parasite
4.3.1 Cytokine Responses to T. vaginalis
4.3.2 T. vaginalis Recognition by the Innate Immune System
4.3.3 Innate Immune Responses to T. vaginalis
4.3.4 Adaptive Immune Responses to T. vaginalis
4.3.5 T. vaginalis Subversion of Host Immune Responses
5 Part 5: T. vaginalis as a Member of a Rich Microbial Ecosystem
5.1 Symbionts of T. vaginalis
5.1.1 Mycoplasma hominis
5.1.2 Candidatus Mycoplasma girerdii
5.1.3 Trichomonasvirus
5.2 T. vaginalis and the Host Microbiome
5.2.1 Mutualism Between the Human Cervicovaginal Microbiome and Host
5.2.2 Correlates of Typical Cervicovaginal Microbiome with Eubiosis and Dysbiosis
5.2.3 Correlates of Cervicovaginal Microbiome with Trichomoniasis
5.2.4 The Interplay of Vaginal Bacteria, T. vaginalis Virulence, and Host Response
6 Part 6: Treatment and Vaccination Prospects
6.1 5′ Nitroimidazole Drugs
6.2 Alternative Treatments
6.3 Vaccines
7 Part 7: Conclusions and Perspectives
References