The book discusses the ways in which high hydrostatic pressure (i.e. water pressure) affects all grades of life which thrive at pressures much greater those in our normal environment. The deep sea is the best known high pressure environment, where pressures reach a thousand times greater than those at the surface, yet it is populated by a variety of animals and microorganisms. The earth’s crust supports microorganisms which live in water filled pores at high pressure. In addition, the load bearing joints of animals like ourselves experience pulses of hydrostatic pressure of a magnitude similar to the pressure at mid ocean depths.
These pressures affect molecular structures and biochemical reactions. Basic cellular processes are drastically affected – the growth and division of cells, the way nerves conduct impulses and the chemical reactions which provide energy. Adaptation to high pressure also occurs in complex physiological systems such as those which provide buoyancy. Probably the greatest challenge to our understanding of adaptation to high pressure is the stabilisation of the nervous system of deep sea animals to avoid convulsions which pressure causes in shallow water animals.
Additionally the book provides insight into the engineering required to study life at high pressure: equipment which can trap small deep sea animals and retrieve them at their high pressure, equivalent equipment for microorganisms, laboratory microscopes which can focus on living cells under high pressure, incubators for bacteria which require high pressure to grow, high pressure aquaria for marine animals and lastly and briefly, manned and unmanned submersible vessels, Landers and deep drill hole sampling. Rather like the organisms studied many laboratory instruments have been adapted to function at high pressure.
Author(s): Alister Macdonald
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2021
Language: English
Pages: 462
City: Cham
Foreword
Preface
Contents
1: High Pressure and High-Pressure Environments
1.1 High-Pressure Environments
1.1.1 Measuring Pressure
Box 1.1 Units Used to Measure Pressure
1.1.2 Negative Pressure
1.2 The Deep Ocean
1.2.1 The Ocean Depths and Their Inhabitants
1.2.2 Freshwater Lakes and Ice
1.3 The Deep Biosphere
1.3.1 Oceanic Crust
1.3.2 Continental Crust
1.4 High-Pressure Joints
1.5 The Modern Classification of Organisms
Box 1.2
References
2: High Pressure: Molecules, Chemical Process and Cellular Structures
2.1 Water, Dissolved Salts and Proteins
Box 2.1: Viscosity
2.2 Chemical Reactions in Solution, at High Pressure
2.2.1 Equilibria
Box 2.2: Effect of Pressure on Dissociation
2.2.2 Rates of Reaction
2.2.2.1 Simple Reactions, Not Involving an Enzyme
2.2.2.2 Enzyme Catalysed Reactions
Box 2.3: Measuring an Activation Volume (DeltaV*) and an Equilibrium Volume (DeltaV)
2.3 The Affinity of an Enzyme for Its Substrate
Box 2.4: Measuring How High Pressure Affects the Affinity of an Enzyme for Its Substrate
2.4 Cells Under High Pressure
2.4.1 Cell Membranes
Box 2.5: Measuring the Fluidity of Lipid Bilayers at High Pressure
2.4.2 Cytoplasm
Box 2.6: Cytoplasm Under High Pressure
2.4.3 Cell Organelles
2.5 Prokaryotes
2.6 Proteins
2.6.1 Actin
2.6.2 Tubulin
Box 2.7: Mitosis
2.6.3 A Special Enzyme, ATP Synthase
2.6.3.1 The ATP Synthase Under High Pressure
References
3: The High Pressure Micro-environment of Vertebrate Load Bearing Joints
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Micro-pressures
3.3 Load Bearing Joints; Cartilage and Bone Cells Exist in Pressurised Environments
3.3.1 Bone
3.4 Experiments with Chondrocytes
3.4.1 The Response of Chondrocytes in Their Matrix to Physiological Pressures
3.5 Does High Hydrostatic Pressure Cause Pathological Effects?
3.6 Conclusion
References
4: Effects of High Pressure on the Activity of Ordinary Animals, Including Humans, and on the Function of Their Excitable Cell...
4.1 Early and Modern Observations, Mostly on Invertebrates
Box 4.1: The Problem of Very Small Hydrostatic Pressures
4.2 Effects of Pressure on the Activity of Fish
4.3 Effects of Pressure on the Activity of Air-Breathing Vertebrates
4.3.1 The Pressure Tolerance of Aquatic and Air-Breathing Vertebrates
4.3.2 HPNS
4.3.3 Free Escape from Submarines
4.4 Reflexes
4.5 Excitable Membranes
4.5.1 Effects of Pressure on Isolated Neurons
Box 4.2: The Resting Potential
4.5.2 Measuring Ionic Currents by Different Methods
4.5.3 How High Pressure Affects Excitable Membranes
4.5.3.1 Single Channel Recording at High Pressure
4.6 Effects of Pressure on Synapses
Box 4.3: The Working Synapse
Box 4.4
4.7 Post Script
4.8 Conclusion
References
5: The Effects of Decompression and Subsequent Re-compression on the Activity of Deep-Sea Animals and Eukaryote Cells. The Iso...
5.1 Deep-Sea Amphipods
5.1.1 Amphipods Collected with Decompression
5.1.2 Amphipods from Lake Baikal
5.2 The Isobaric Collection of Deep-Sea Animals: Retrieval Without Decompression
5.2.1 The Isobaric Trap
5.2.2 Other Isobaric Collections
5.2.3 When to Use Isobaric Collecting Equipment?
5.2.4 The Isobaric Collection of Deep-Sea Fish
5.3 Resuscitation of Animals and Their Tissues from the Effects of Hydraulic Decompression
5.3.1 The Resuscitation of Deep-Sea Fish by High Pressure
5.3.1.1 Fish from Lake Baikal
5.3.2 The Resuscitation of Isolated Fish Tissue by High Pressure
5.3.2.1 Fish Swimming Muscle
5.3.2.2 Fish Heart Muscle
5.3.3 Fish Neurons
5.4 The Tolerance of Other Deep-Sea Animals to Decompression
5.4.1 Animals from Great and Moderate Depths
5.4.2 The Antioxidative Defences of Deep-Sea Animals
5.4.3 Deep-Sea Fish Cells and Tissues In Vitro
5.5 Other Deep-Sea Animals
5.6 Microbial Eukaryotes
5.6.1 Protists
5.6.2 Fungi
5.7 Conclusion
References
6: Molecular Adaptation to High Pressure: Proteins in Deep-Sea Animals
6.1 Protein Adaptation
6.1.1 Intrinsic Adaption of Proteins to High Pressure
6.1.1.1 Structural Proteins
6.1.1.2 Enzymes
6.1.1.3 Visual Pigments
Box 6.1 Opsins
6.2 Extrinsic Adaptation of Proteins to High Pressure
6.2.1 Pressure Protection
6.2.2 Compatible Solutes
6.2.3 TMAO in Deep-Sea Animals
6.2.4 Some Implications of the Extrinsic Adaptation of Proteins to High Pressure
6.3 How Does TMAO Counteract the Effects of High Pressure on Proteins?
6.4 Conclusions
References
7: Molecular Adaptation to High Pressure: Membranes
7.1 Homeoviscous Adaptation
7.2 Membranes from Deep-sea Fish
7.2.1 The Fluidity of the Lipid Bilayer in Deep-sea Fish Membranes
7.2.2 The Lipid Composition of Deep-sea Fish Membranes
7.3 Homeoviscous Adaptation in the Membranes of Deep-sea Bacteria
7.3.1 Some Physiological Functions Related to the Membranes of Marine Bacteria
7.4 Bacteria in the Deep Biosphere
7.4.1 Sample Collection
7.4.2 Membrane Lipids in Bacteria From the Deep Biosphere
7.5 Homeoviscous Adaptation: Other Aspects
7.6 Do Shallow Water Cells Show Homeoviscous Adaptation When Exposed to High Pressure?
References
8: Prokaryotes at High Pressure in the Oceans and Deep Biosphere
8.1 Microorganisms in the Deep Sea and Their Collection
8.2 Effects of Decompression on Deep-Sea Bacteria
8.2.1 Bacteria Decompressed During Collection and Recompressed
8.2.2 Isobaric Samples
8.2.3 Bacteria from the Hadal Zone
8.3 Growing Bacteria at High Pressure
8.3.1 Continuous Culture Methods
8.4 Pressure Experienced by Sinking Particles
8.5 Eukaryotic Microorganisms
8.6 Viruses
8.7 Microorganisms in the Deep Biosphere
8.7.1 The Presence and Activity of Microorganisms in the Deep Biosphere
8.7.2 Growth in High-Pressure Gases
8.7.3 High Partial Pressures of Helium, Hydrogen and Methane
8.7.4 Gases Important in the Deep Biosphere
8.8 Isobaric Samples from the Deep Biosphere
8.8.1 CORKs and FLOCS
8.8.2 Pollution in Deep Environments: Hydrocarbons and Other Toxic Compounds
8.9 Adaptations of the Enzymes of Deep Sea and Deep Biosphere Microorganisms to High Pressure
8.9.1 Intrinsic Adaptation of Microbial Proteins to High Pressure
8.9.2 Extrinsic Adaptations of Proteins
8.10 Conclusion
References
9: Hydrothermal Vents: The Inhabitants, Their Way of Life and Their Adaptation to High Pressure
9.1 Hydrothermal Vents: Physical Conditions
9.2 Geobiochemistry and the Origin of Life
Box 9.1 Extraterrestrial Life
9.3 The Inhabitants of the Vent Sites
9.3.1 Animals
9.3.1.1 The Tubeworm Riftia
9.3.1.2 Other Worms
9.3.1.3 Crabs and Mussels
9.3.1.4 Shrimps
9.3.1.5 Fish
9.3.2 Microorganisms
9.3.2.1 Eukaryote Microorganisms
9.3.2.2 Protists
9.4 Prokaryotes
9.4.1 Archaea
9.4.2 Bacteria
9.4.2.1 Bacteria Growing on Substrates
9.4.2.2 Bacteria in Water Samples
9.5 Viruses and Other Mobile Genetic Elements
9.6 Homeoviscous Adaptation in Hydrothermal Vent Organisms
9.6.1 Animals
9.6.2 Bacteria
9.6.3 Archaea
9.6.3.1 Archaeal Lipids
9.6.3.2 Methanococcus janaschii
9.6.3.3 Thermococcus barophilus
9.7 The Dispersal from, and the Colonisation of, Hydrothermal Vents
9.7.1 Dispersal from Hydrothermal Vents
9.7.2 Abyssal and Benthic Animals Also Produce Planktonic Larva
9.7.3 Pelagic Adults and Larvae
9.7.4 Colonisation
References
10: Buoyancy at Depth
10.1 Densities of Sea Water and Cell Constituents
10.2 Small Planktonic Organisms
10.3 Buoyancy in Larger Animals Living at Significant Pressures
10.3.1 Ionic Regulation in Bathypelagic Squid
10.4 Gas Phase Buoyancy
10.4.1 Cephalopods
Box 10.1 Solute Coupled Water Transport in Nautilus
10.4.2 The Gas-Filled Swim Bladder of Bony Fishes
Box 10.2 Hydrostatic pressure affects gas solubility
10.4.3 Other Functions of the Swim Bladder
10.5 Buoyancy Provided by Oil and Lipid
10.5.1 The Sperm Whale
10.5.2 Fish Buoyed by Oil and Lipids
10.5.2.1 Cartilaginous Fish
10.5.2.2 Bony Fish
References
11: Divers: Air-Breathing Animals, Including Humans, at High Pressure
11.1 Breath-Hold Diving
11.1.1 Humans
11.1.2 Specialised Deep-Diving Birds and Mammals
11.2 Deep-Diving Lungs Under Pressure
11.2.1 Consequences of Gas Dissolved in Tissues Under Pressure
11.2.1.1 Nitrogen
11.2.1.2 Oxygen
11.3 Pressure Effects on Some Cells in Diving Animals
11.3.1 Muscle Enzymes
11.3.2 Red Cells
11.3.3 Platelets
11.3.4 Excitable Cells
11.4 Human Diving Supported by a Self-Contained Gas Supply
11.4.1 Gases Breathed at High Pressure
11.4.2 Oxygen
11.4.3 Nitrogen and Other Anaesthetic Inert Gases
11.4.3.1 Anaesthesia and Inert Gas Narcosis Are Reversed by Pressure
Box 11.1
11.5 The High-Pressure Neurological Syndrome, HPNS
11.6 Decompression
11.7 Conclusion
References
12: Adaptation to High Pressure in the Laboratory
12.1 Microorganisms
12.1.1 Escherichia coli
12.1.2 Other Examples of Organisms Surviving Very High Pressures
12.1.3 Photobacterium profundum
12.1.4 Other Microorganisms
12.1.5 Yeast, Saccharomyces sp., a Eukaryote Microorganism
12.2 Animals
12.2.1 Shallow Water Animals
12.2.1.1 The Design of Experiments Eliciting Stress Responses and the Expression of Other Genes
12.2.2 Animals from Deeper Water: Acclimation to Atmospheric Pressure
12.2.3 Genetic Adaptation
12.2.4 The Eel, Anguilla anguilla
12.3 Conclusion
References
13: High-Pressure Equipment for Use in the Laboratory, at Sea and at Depth
13.1 Generating High Pressure
13.1.1 Pumps
13.1.2 Generating Pressure by Centrifugation
13.2 High-Pressure Plumbing
13.3 Pressure Vessels
13.4 Safety
13.5 Examples of High-Pressure Experimental Apparatus
13.5.1 Experiments with Small Animals
13.5.2 Electrical Recording at High Pressure (Fig. 13.2)
13.5.2.1 Patch Clamp Recording at High Pressure
13.5.3 Other High-Pressure Apparatus
13.5.3.1 Stopping a Reaction at High Pressure
13.5.3.2 Starting a Physiological Reaction at High Pressure
13.5.3.3 Measuring High Hydrostatic Pressure in Load-Bearing Joints
13.6 High-Pressure Windows
13.6.1 Small High-Pressure Windows
13.6.2 Large High-Pressure Windows
13.7 The Isobaric Collection and Transfer of Organisms from High-Pressure Environments
Box 13.1 Isobaric Collection of Small Deep-Sea Animals
13.7.1 Isobaric Collection of Deep-Sea Animals Using Equipment Operated from a Surface Ship
13.7.1.1 Isobaric Trapping of Benthic Animals
13.7.2 Isobaric Collection of Fish from a Surface Ship
13.7.3 The Isobaric Collection of Animals Using a Submersible
13.8 The Isobaric Collection of Microorganisms
13.8.1 Meso and Bathy Pelagic Microorganisms
13.8.2 DEEPBATH
13.8.3 Microorganisms from Deep-Sea Animals
13.8.4 Fluid and Dissolved Gas Samplers
13.9 Isobaric Recovery from the Deep Biosphere
13.9.1 Isobaric Drill Cores
13.9.2 CORKS and FLOCS: Drill Hole Sampling
References
Index
