Introduction to Photonics and Laser Physics with Applications

PRELIMS.pdf
Preface
Author biography
Prem B Bisht
Foreword
CH001.pdf
Chapter 1 The photon and photonics
1.1 The photon
1.2 Branches of photonics
1.2.1 Conventional optics
1.2.2 Electromagnetism and wave optics
1.2.3 Quantum optics
1.2.4 Light–matter interaction or quantum electronics
1.2.5 Optoelectronics
1.2.6 Electro-optics
1.2.7 Light-wave technology
1.3 Maxwell’s equations and their connection to optics
1.4 A few topics related to lasers and optics
1.4.1 Phase velocity and group velocity
1.4.2 Power flow and Poynting vector
1.4.3 Radiation pressure and angular momentum
1.4.4 Radiation emitted by the accelerated charge
1.4.5 Refractive index
1.4.6 Dispersion curve
1.4.7 Normal dispersion and anomalous dispersion
1.5 Comparison of an electronic circuit and a photonic circuit
1.6 Nobel prizes related to lasers
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH002.pdf
Chapter 2 Light–matter interaction and the essentials of spectroscopy
2.1 Light sources and types of spectra
2.2 Laser: a tool covering the EM spectrum
2.3 Photoelectric effect
2.4 Rutherford’s experiment
2.5 Bohr’s atomic model: atomic energy levels
2.6 Franck–Hertz experiment
2.7 Stern–Gerlach experiment: spin quantization
2.8 Compton effect
2.9 Quantum mechanical picture of matter
2.9.1 Wave functions
2.9.2 The Schrödinger equation
2.9.3 Infinite quantum well
2.9.4 Stationary states and the coherent state
2.9.5 Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
2.9.6 Atomic quantum states
2.9.7 Molecular quantum states
2.9.8 Energy–momentum diagrams in semiconductors
2.9.9 Energy levels in solids: doped insulators
2.10 Raman spectroscopy
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH003.pdf
Chapter 3 Polarization of light
3.1 EM waves and linearly polarized light
3.2 Types of polarization
3.2.1 Ordinary and extraordinary light beams
3.2.2 Classification of polarized light
3.3 Jones vector representation of polarization
3.3.1 Jones vector
3.3.2 Jones vectors for some common types of light
3.3.3 Jones matrix for a medium
3.4 Methods of generating polarized light
3.4.1 Wire-grid polarizer in the microwave region
3.4.2 Long polymer chain
3.4.3 Polarization based on reflection
3.4.4 Polarization based on dichroism
3.4.5 Polarization based on double refraction
3.5 Change of state of polarization
3.5.1 Electro-optic effects
3.5.2 Magneto-optic effect
3.6 Quarter-wave and half-wave plates
3.7 Polarized light in nature
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH004.pdf
Chapter 4 Spontaneous and stimulated emission
4.1 Thermal radiation and Planck’s law
4.1.1 Radiation density in a cavity
4.1.2 Density of modes in a closed container
4.1.3 Wein’s displacement law
4.2 Boltzmann statistics
4.3 Planck’s law of radiation
4.4 Einstein’s A and B coefficients
4.4.1 Stimulated absorption coefficient
4.4.2 Spontaneous emission
4.4.3 Coefficient of stimulated emission
4.4.4 Rate equation analysis
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH005.pdf
Chapter 5 The Beer–Lambert law and the gain coefficient
5.1 The Beer–Lambert law
5.2 Absorption coefficient
5.3 Gain media
5.4 Gain coefficient
5.5 Round-trip gain
5.6 Gain saturation
5.7 Applications of the Beer–Lambert law
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH006.pdf
Chapter 6 Population inversion with moderate pumping
6.1 Population inversion schemes
6.1.1 Two-level system
6.1.2 A low-efficiency scheme: the three-level system
6.1.3 Population inversion in a four-level system
6.2 Rate equation analysis for a four-level system and a multilevel system
6.2.1 Population inversion between E2 and E1
6.2.2 Metastable state
6.2.3 Plot of output power after population inversion
6.3 Typical laser systems
6.3.1 Nd:YAG laser
6.3.2 Helium–neon laser
6.3.3 Argon-ion laser
6.3.4 Nitrogen laser and superradiance
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH007.pdf
Chapter 7 Pumping mechanisms and types of optical cavity
7.1 Pumping via electrical excitation
7.1.1 Collisions of the first kind
7.1.2 Collisions of the second kind
7.1.3 Electrical pumping
7.2 Optical pumping
7.2.1 Lamps
7.2.2 Light-emitting diodes and lasers
7.3 Thermal and gas-dynamic pumping
7.4 Chemical pumping
7.5 Nuclear pumping
7.6 Pump-cavity geometries
7.6.1 Optical side pumping
7.6.2 Optical transverse pumping
7.6.3 Optical face pumping
7.6.4 Other optical pumping geometries
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH008.pdf
Chapter 8 Line-broadening mechanisms
8.1 The small-gain coefficient in practice
8.2 Spectral resolving power
8.3 Line broadening in He–Ne lasers
8.4 Harmonic oscillator
8.5 Broadening mechanisms
8.5.1 Fourier transform
8.5.2 Homogeneous broadening and the Lorentzian expression
8.5.3 Inhomogeneous broadening and the Gaussian expression
8.6 Correction of the small-gain coefficient
8.7 Voigt profile
8.8 The effect of amorphous or crystalline hosts
8.9 Hole burning and the Lamb dip
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH009.pdf
Chapter 9 The Fabry–Pérot resonator
9.1 Modes in a two-dimensional cavity
9.1.1 Active medium and gain bandwidth
9.1.2 Modes of a cavity
9.1.3 Free spectral range
9.2 Resonant cavity: the Fabry–Pérot resonator
9.2.1 A beam splitter in the path of the light
9.2.2 Phase difference between reflected and refracted light
9.2.3 Field transmitted by a passive cavity: the Airy function
9.2.4 Effect of the reflectivity of beam splitters
9.2.5 Longitudinal modes
9.2.6 Properties of FP resonators
9.3 FP etalon
9.4 Fresnel number
9.5 Mode pulling
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH010.pdf
Chapter 10 Basic properties of lasers: directionality, brightness, and coherence
10.1 Directionality of a laser beam
10.2 Brightness of a light source
10.2.1 Sun
10.2.2 Sodium lamp
10.2.3 A laser—the He–Ne laser
10.3 Monochromaticity
10.4 Coherence
10.4.1 Visibility or contrast in interference fringes
10.4.2 Temporal coherence: the idea of ‘coherence length’
10.4.3 Spatial or transverse coherence
10.4.4 Coherence surface and coherence volume
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH011.pdf
Chapter 11 ABCD matrices and stability diagrams
11.1 Geometrical optics and ABCD matrices
11.1.1 Translation matrix
11.1.2 Reflection matrix
11.1.3 Refraction matrix
11.2 Round trip in a cavity
11.2.1 Light ray from the middle of the cavity
11.2.2 Light initiated at a mirror
11.3 Cavity with several round trips
11.3.1 Stability condition for m round trips
11.3.2 Stability diagram
11.4 Nearly stable or marginally stable resonators
11.5 Stable resonators
11.6 Unstable resonators
11.6.1 Negative-branch confocal unstable cavity
11.6.2 Positive-branch confocal unstable cavity
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH012.pdf
Chapter 12 Stability conditions according to Gaussian beam analysis
12.1 Cavity mirrors as diffracting elements
12.2 Laser light: a plane or spherical wave?
12.3 Kirchhoff’s diffraction
12.3.1 Single diffraction
12.3.2 Multiple diffractions
12.4 Directional properties of laser light
12.4.1 Obtaining the Helmholtz equation from the wave equation
12.4.2 Slowly varying envelope approximation (SVEA)
12.4.3 Transverse Helmholtz equation
12.4.4 Radius of curvature of the beam
12.4.5 Beam waist
12.4.6 Rayleigh range in terms of the minimum beam waist
12.4.7 Laser beam spot and Gaussian expression
12.4.8 Angular spread
12.4.9 Special cases of R(z)
12.4.10 Appearance of the Gouy phase
12.5 Stability condition and Gaussian wave analysis
12.6 TEM modes
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH013.pdf
Chapter 13 Laser spiking and Q-switching
13.1 Pulsed light sources
13.1.1 External modulation
13.1.2 Intra-cavity modulation
13.2 The spiking phenomenon
13.2.1 Pump flash duration and population inversion
13.2.2 Laser spiking
13.3 The Q-switching phenomenon
13.3.1 Conditions for Q-switching
13.3.2 Methods of Q-switching
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH014.pdf
Chapter 14 Introduction to nonlinear optical phenomena
14.1 Review of linear dielectrics
14.2 Wave equation in nonlinear optics
14.2.1 Interatomic field strength
14.2.2 Higher terms of polarization
14.3 Units and estimates of susceptibilities
14.4 Characteristics of second-order susceptibility
14.4.1 Optical rectification (OR)
14.4.2 Second-harmonic generation
14.5 Virtual levels
14.6 Linear and nonlinear optics
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH015.pdf
Chapter 15 Second-order susceptibility, phase matching, and applications
15.1 Sum- and difference-frequency generation
15.1.1 Three-wave mixing processes
15.2 Signal and idler photons
15.3 Properties of, and contracted notation for, χ(2)
15.4 Conditions for refractive-index matching
15.4.1 Angle dependence of the extraordinary refractive index
15.4.2 Phase matching for SHG in a crystal
15.4.3 Effects of the length and area of nonlinear crystals
15.4.4 Types of phase-matching interaction
15.5 Parametric oscillation and amplification
15.5.1 Optical parametric oscillation
15.5.2 Noncollinear geometries of parametric amplification
15.6 Superfluorescence
15.7 Generation of polarization-entangled photons
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH016.pdf
Chapter 16 Third-order nonlinear optical processes
16.1 Parametric and nonparametric processes
16.2 Third-order nonlinear optical susceptibility
16.3 Symmetry properties of the susceptibility tensor
16.4 Four-wave mixing due to χ3
16.5 Third-harmonic generation
16.6 Optical Kerr effect
16.6.1 Transverse OKE
16.6.2 Longitudinal OKE: the effect of self-phase modulation
16.7 Optical phase conjugation
16.8 Stimulated Raman and Brillouin scattering
16.9 Four-photon parametric generation
16.10 Cross-phase modulation
16.11 Self-steepening
16.12 Saturable absorption
16.13 Photonic circuit based on the SA effect
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH017.pdf
Chapter 17 Mode locking
17.1 The requirement for short-duration optical pulses
17.2 Mode locking of lasers
17.2.1 Longitudinal modes with random phases
17.2.2 Longitudinal modes with identical phases
17.3 Methods of mode locking
17.3.1 Active mode locking: the acousto-optic method
17.3.2 Synchronous pumping
17.3.3 Passive mode locking
17.4 Shortening of pulse length
17.5 Spectra of mode-locked laser pulses
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH018.pdf
Chapter 18 Characterization of ultrafast laser pulses
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Autocorrelators
18.2.1 Intensity autocorrelation
18.2.2 Background-free intensity autocorrelation
18.2.3 Interferometric autocorrelation
18.3 Frequency-resolved optical gating
18.4 Spectral phase interferometry
18.5 Frequency up- and downconversion
18.6 Dispersion of ultrafast laser pulses
18.6.1 Linear chirp
18.6.2 Nonlinear chirp
18.7 Dispersion compensation
18.7.1 Grating compressor
18.7.2 Prism compressor
18.8 Dispersion-free autocorrelator
18.9 Chirped pulse amplification
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH019.pdf
Chapter 19 Optical phase conjugation
19.1 Two-beam interference and Bragg diffraction
19.2 Four-wave mixing: phase conjugation
19.2.1 Diffraction efficiency and χ(3)
19.2.2 Six-wave mixing and χ(5)
19.3 Time-reversal in phase conjugation
19.4 Applications of phase conjugation
19.4.1 Reversal of the wavefront
19.4.2 Correction of aberrations and imaging
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH020.pdf
Chapter 20 Multiphoton absorption
20.1 Higher photon absorption processes
20.2 Units of absorption cross-sections
20.3 Selection rules
20.3.1 Advantage of multiphoton processes
20.4 Reverse saturable absorption
20.4.1 Excited-state absorption
20.4.2 Free-carrier absorption
20.4.3 2PA and MPA processes
20.5 Estimating the number of photons
20.6 Second-harmonic or multiphoton emission?
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH021.pdf
Chapter 21 White-light continuum generation
21.1 Spatial self-phase modulation
21.2 White-light continuum generation
21.3 Phenomena responsible for WLC generation
21.4 Spectrum of the WLC in a water–D2O mixture
21.5 Supercontinuum with photonic crystal fiber
21.5.1 Structure of photonic crystal fiber
21.5.2 The mechanism responsible for the supercontinuum in PCF
21.6 Filamentation and conical emission
21.7 Dark-core beam generation
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH022.pdf
Chapter 22 Semiconductor lasers
22.1 Semiconductors
22.2 Bandgaps in semiconductors
22.3 Excitons
22.4 Fermi level
22.5 Direct and indirect bandgaps
22.6 Density of states
22.7 p-type and n-type semiconductors
22.8 The p–n junction and electrical excitation
22.8.1 The light-emitting diode: a forward-biased p–n junction
22.8.2 Diode lasers
22.9 Semiconductor heterostructures
22.10 Vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers
22.11 Quantum cascade laser: a unipolar device
22.11.1 Quantum size effect
22.11.2 Mechanism of lasing in the QCL
22.11.3 Advantages of the QCL over laser diodes
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH023.pdf
Chapter 23 Fiber lasers
23.1 Fiber laser technology
23.1.1 Structure of an optical fiber
23.1.2 Acceptance angle and numerical aperture
23.2 Gain media for fiber lasers
23.3 Chromatic dispersion and nonlinear effects
23.3.1 Material dispersion
23.3.2 Mode dispersion
23.3.3 Polarization dispersion
23.4 Optical nonlinearity
23.5 Fiber amplifiers and lasers
23.6 Figure-of-eight laser
23.6.1 Optical isolator
23.6.2 Nonlinear amplifying loop mirror
23.6.3 Mode-locked operation in the F8L
23.7 High-power fiber lasers
23.8 Raman fiber laser
23.9 Optical fiber communication
23.9.1 Losses due to fiber absorption
23.9.2 Fiber scattering losses
23.9.3 Gain medium
23.9.4 Soliton formation
23.9.5 Higher-order dispersion and other effects
Questions and problems
Bibliography
CH024.pdf
Chapter 24 Coherent radiation obtained using special geometries
24.1 Mirrorless laser cavities
24.1.1 Principle of DFB lasers
24.1.2 Ultrashort pulses and the tunability of DFB lasers
24.2 Coherent radiation based on acceleration of charge
24.2.1 Free-electron lasers
24.2.2 Extreme UV and soft x-ray lasers
24.3 Present and future outlook
Questions and problems
Bibliography
APPA.pdf
Chapter
APPB.pdf
Chapter
APPC.pdf
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