Introduction to Membrane Science and Technology

Contents
Preface
Symbols
Roman Symbols
Greek symbols
Subscripts
Superscripts
1. Introduction
Overview of Membrane Science and Technology
History of Membrane Science and Technology
Advantages and Limitations of Membrane Processes
The Membrane-Based Industry: Its Structure and Markets
Future Developments in Membrane Science and Technology
Biological Membranes
Summary
Recommended Reading
References
2. Fundamentals
Introduction
Definition of Terms
The Membrane and Its Function
Membrane Materials and Membrane Structures
Symmetric and Asymmetric Membranes
Porous Membranes
Homogeneous Dense Membranes
Ion-Exchange Membranes
Liquid Membranes
Fixed Carrier Membranes
Other Membranes
Membrane Geometries
Mass Transport in Membranes
Membrane Separation Properties
Definition of Various Membrane Processes
Pressure-Driven Membrane Processes
Activity and Concentration Gradient Driven Membrane Processes
Electrical Potential and Electrochemical Potential Driven Processes
Fundamentals of Mass Transport in Membranes and Membrane Processes
Basic Thermodynamic Relationships with Relevance to Membrane Processes
Basic Electrochemical Relationships with Relevance to Membrane Processes
Electron and Ion Conductivity and Ohm's Law
Ion Conductivity, Ion Mobility, and Drift Speed
Coulomb's Law and the Electric Field Effect on Ions in Solution
The Electric Field Effect in Electrolyte Solutions and the Debye-Hückel Theory
Electrical Dipoles and Intermolecular Forces
Chemical and Electrochemical Equilibrium in Membrane Systems
Water Dissociation Equilibrium and the pH- and pK Values of Acids and Bases
Osmotic Equilibrium, Osmotic Pressure, Osmosis. and Reverse Osmosis
The Electrochemical Equilibrium and the Donnan Potential between a Membrane and a Solution
The Donnan Exclusion of the Co-ions
Fluxes and Driving Forces in Membrane Processes
Viscous Flow through Porous Membranes
Diffusion in Liquids and Dense Membranes
Diffusion in Solid or Dense Materials
Jon Flux and Electrical Current
Diffusion of Ions in an Electrolyte Solution
Jon Mobility and Ion Radius in Aqueous Solutions
Migration of Ions and the Electrical Current
The Transport Number and the Permselectivity of Ion-exchange Membranes
Interdependence of Fluxes and Driving Forces
Gas Flux through Porous Membranes, the Knudsen and Surface Diffusion and Molecular Sieving
Surface Diffusion and Capillary Condensation of Gases
Mathematical Description of Mass Transport in Membranes
Mass Transport Described by the Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes
Mass Transport Described by the Stefan-Maxwell Equations
Membrane Mass Transport Models
The Solution-Diffusion Model
The Pore Flow Model and the Membrane Cut-off
References
3. Membrane Preparation and Characterization
Introduction
Membrane Materials
Polymeric Membrane Materials
The Physical State of a Polymer
Crystallinity and Glass Transition Temperature
The Glass Transition Temperature and the Free Volume
Molecular Weight o fa Polymer Chain
Macroscopic Structures of Polymers
Polymer Chain Interaction and Its Effect on Physical Properties
The Chemical Structure of the Polymer and Its Effect on Polymer Properties
Inorganic Membrane Materials
Metal Membranes
Glass Membranes
Carbon Membranes
Metal Oxide Membranes
Liquid Membrane Materials
Preparation of Membranes
Preparation of Symmetric Porous Membranes
Isotropic Membranes Made by Sintering of Powders, Stretching of Films, and Template Leaching
Membranes Made by Pressing and Sintering of Polymer Powders
Membranes Made by Stretching a Polymer Film of Partial Crystallinity
Membranes Made by Track-Etching
Membranes Made by Micro-Lithography and Etching Techniques
Glass Membranes Made by Template Leaching
Porous Graphite Membranes Made by Pyrolyzing Polymer Structures
Symmetric Porous Polymer Membranes Made by Phase Inversion Techniques
Preparation of Asymmetric Membranes
Preparation of Integral Asymmetric Membranes
Practical Membrane Preparation by Phase Inversion
Temperature-Induced Membrane Preparation
Diffusion-Induced Membrane Preparation
Phenomenological Description of the Phase Separation Process
Temperature-Induced Phase Separation Process
Thermodynamics of a Temperature-Induced Phase Separation of a Two-Component Mixture
The Diffusion-Induced Phase Separation Process
Structures of Asymmetric Membranes Obtained by Phase Inversion
Identification of Various Process Parameters in the Preparation of Phase Inversion Membranes
General Observation Concerning the Structure of Phase Inversion Membranes
The Selection of a Polymer/Solvent/Precipitant System for the Preparation of Membranes
Membrane Pre- and Post-Precipitation Treatment
Preparation of Composite Membranes
Techniques Used for the Preparation of Polymeric Composite Membranes
Preparation of Inorganic Membranes
Suspension Coating and the Sol-Gel Process
Perovskite Membranes
Zeolite Membranes
Porous Carbon Membranes
Porous Glass Membranes
Preparation of Homogeneous Solid Membranes
Preparation of Liquid Membranes
Preparation of Ion-Exchange Membranes
Membrane Characterization
Characterization of Porous Membranes
Techniques using Microscopy
Determination of Micro- and Ultrafiltration Membrane Fluxes
Membrane Retention and Molecular Weight Cut-Off
The Bacterial Challenge Test
Membrane Pore Size Determination
Air/Liquid and Liquid/Liquid Displacement
The Bubble Point Method and Gas Liquid Porosimetry
Liquid/Liquid Displacement
Permporometry
Thermoporometry
Characterization of Dense Membranes
Determination of Diffusivity in Dense Membranes
Long-Term Stability of Membranes
Determination of Electrochemical Properties of Membranes
Hydraulic Permeability of Ion-Exchange Membranes
The Fixed Charge Density of Ion-Exchange Membranes
Determination of the Electrical Resistance of lon-Exchange Membranes
Membrane Resistance Measurements by Impedance Spectroscopy
Permselectivity of Ion-Exchange Membranes
Membrane Permeation Selectivity for Different Counter-ions
Water Transport in Ion-Exchange Membranes
Characterization of Special Property Jon-Exchange Membranes
The Mechanical Properties of Membranes
References
4. Principles of Membrane Separation Processes
Introduction
The Principle of Membrane Filtration Processes
The Principle of Microfiltration
The Principle of Ultrafiltration
The Principle of Nanofiltration
The Principle of Reverse Osmosis
The Reverse Osmosis Mass Transport Described by the Solution-Diffusion Model
Reverse Osmosis Transport Described by the Phenomenological Equations
The Water and Salt Distribution in a Polymer Matrix and the Cluster Function
The Principle of Gas and Vapor Separation
Gas Separation by Knudsen Diffusion
Gas Separation by Surface Diffusion and Molecular Sieving
Gas Transport in a Dense Polymer Matrix
The Principle of Pervaporation
Material Selection for the Preparation of Pervaporation Membranes
The Principle of Dialysis
Mass Transport of Components Carrying No Electrical Charges in Dialysis
Dialysis Mass Transport of Electrolytes in a Membrane without Fixed Ions
Dialysis of Electrolytes with Ion-Exchange Membranes
The Principle of Electro membrane Processes
Electrodialysis and Related Processes
Mass Transport in Electrodialysis
Electrical Current and Ion Fluxes in Electrodialysis
The Transport Number and Membrane Permselectivity
Membrane Counter-Ion Permselectivity
Water Transport in Electrodialysis
Current Efficiency in Electrodialysis
Electrodialysis with Bipolar Membranes
Continuous Electrodeionization
Capacitive Deionization
Energy Generation by Reverse Electrodialysis
Electrochemical Synthesis with Ion-Exchange Membranes
Ion-Exchange Membranes in Energy Storage and Conversion
The Principle of Membrane Contactors
Membrane Contactors Separating a Hydrophobic from a Hydrophilic Phase
Membrane Contactors Used to Separate Two Immiscible Liquid Phases
Membrane Contactors Separating a Liquid from a Gas Phase
Membrane Distillation
Osmotic Distillation
Supported Liquid Membranes and Facilitated Transport
Counter-Current Coupled Facilitated Transport
Membrane Reactors
Membrane Emulsifier
Membrane-Based Controlled Release of Active Agents
References
5. Membrane Modules and Concentration Polarization
Introduction
Membrane Modules
Membrane Holding Devices in Laboratory and Small-Scale Applications
The Stirred Batch Cell
The Sealed Membrane Point-of-Use Filter
The Plate-and-Frame Membrane Module
Industrial-Type Membrane Modules for Large Capacity Applications
The Pleated Filter Membrane Cartridge
The Spiral-Wound Module
The Tubular Membrane Module
The Capillary Membrane Module
The Hollow Fiber Membrane Module
Other Membrane Modules
Membrane Modules Used in Electrodialysis and in Dialysis
Concentration Polarization and Membrane Fouling
Concentration Polarization in Filtration Processes
Concentration Polarization without Solute Precipitation
Concentration Polarization in Turbulent Flow Described by the Film Model
Concentration Polarization in Laminar Flow Membrane Devices
Rigorous Analysis of Concentration Polarization
Membrane Flux Decline due to Concentration Polarization without Solute Precipitation
Concentration Polarization with Solute Precipitation at the Membrane Surface
Concentration Polarization in Other Membrane Separation Processes
Concentration Polarization in Dialysis and Electrodialysis
Concentration Polarization in Electrodialysis
Concentration Polarization in Gas Separation
Concentration Polarization in Pervaporation
Membrane Fouling and Its Causes and Consequences
Prevention of Membrane Fouling
References
6. Membrane Process Design and Operation
Introduction
Membrane Filtration Processes
Recovery Rate, Membrane Rejection, Retentate, and Filtrate Concentrations
Solute Losses in Membrane Filtration Processes
Operation Modes in Filtration Processes
Reverse Osmosis Process Design
Stages and Cascades in Membrane Filtration
Ultra- and Microfiltration Process Design
Ultrafiltration Process Design
Diafiltration
Costs of Membrane Filtration Processes
Energy Requirements in Filtration Processes
Investment and Maintenance-Related Costs in Filtration Processes
Gas Separation
Gas Separation Process Design and Operation
Staging in Gas Separation and the Reflux Cascade
Energy Consumption and Cost of Gas Separation
Pervaporation
Pervaporation Modes of Operation
Staging and Cascades in Pervaporation
Pervaporation Energy Consumption and Process Costs
Dialysis
Dialysis Process and System Design
Dialyzer Membrane Module Constructions
Process Costs in Dialysis
Electrodialysis and Related Processes
Process Design in Conventional Electrodialysis
Operation of the Electrodialysis Stacks in a Desalination Plant
Process Costs in Electrodialysis
References
Appendix A
Questions and Exercises
Appendix B
Index