Introduction to Development Engineering: A Framework with Applications from the Field

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Contributors
About the Editors
1 Introduction to Development Engineering
1 What is Development Engineering?
2 Intellectual History of the Field
2.1 Appropriate Technology Movement
2.2 Market-Oriented Approaches
2.3 Humanitarian Engineering
2.4 ICTD
2.5 Human-Centered and Participatory Design
2.6 Development Engineering
References
2 Technology and Development
1 Introduction
2 Firms, Trade, and Infrastructure
2.1 Boosting Productivity in Firms and Agriculture
2.1.1 Agriculture
2.1.2 Firms
2.2 Facilitating Trade
3 Labor Markets and Structural Change
3.1 Bridging the Employer-Employee Information Gap
3.2 Transforming the World of Work
3.3 Widening Access to Quality Education
4 Financial Technologies
4.1 Increasing Financial Resilience
4.2 Facilitating Firm and Government Transactions
5 Energy and Environment
5.1 Scaling Energy Access
5.2 Guaranteeing Sustainability
6 State Capacity and Public Sector Delivery
6.1 Bolstering State Effectiveness and Accountability
6.2 Improving Political Participation and Electoral Integrity
7 Health
7.1 Improving the Quality and Delivery of Healthcare Services
8 Conclusion
References
3 A Practical Framework for Research
1 Introduction
2 Innovation Under Constraints
2.1 Market Constraints
2.2 Institutional Failures
2.3 Social Norms and Behaviors That Constrain Development
3 Framework for Research
4 Additional Resources
References
4 Asking the “Right” Questions
1 The Paradox of the Development Engineer
2 Beneficiaries and Aspirations
3 Framing the “Problem”
4 Conducting Ethical Research
5 Impact and Scale, Take 2
References
Part I Expanding Access to Affordable and Reliable Energy, While Minimizing the Environmental Impacts
5 Expanding Access to Electricity in Kenya
1 The Development Challenge
2 Innovations in the Technology Landscape
2.1 Prepaid, Smart Metered Solar Microgrids
3 Iterative Learning: A Major Pivot
3.1 On-grid, Off-Grid, or Under-Grid?
3.2 Private Versus Public Infrastructure
4 Randomizing Access to Grid Electricity
4.1 Conducting a Census Across “Transformer Communities”
4.2 Binding Our Hands with a Pre-analysis Plan
5 Iterative Learning: Unexpected Field Challenges
5.1 Connecting Households in Areas with No Electricians
5.2 Major Supply-Side Issues: Blackouts and Construction Delays
5.3 Discovering Cost Data and Investigating Potential Leakage Issues
5.4 The Gap Between Demand and Costs
6 No Meaningful and Statistically Significant Impacts
7 Looking Ahead
8 Discussion Questions
References
6 Measuring Grid Reliability in Ghana
1 The Development Challenge
2 Context
2.1 Energy Environment in Ghana
2.2 Partners
2.3 High-Level Goals
2.3.1 Improving Energy-Reliability Data Quality
2.3.2 Providing Utility-Independent Measurements
2.3.3 Exploring Impacts of Reliability
3 Innovate, Implement, Evaluate, Adapt
3.1 Innovation: Data Collection Instruments
3.1.1 Sensors
3.1.2 Surveys
3.2 Innovation: Deployment Methodology
3.2.1 Site Selection
3.2.2 Sampling Strategy
3.2.3 Deployment and Surveying Team
3.2.4 Dependence on Participants
3.2.5 Deployment Management Tools
3.3 Evaluation: Overview
3.4 Evaluation: Small-Scale Pilot
3.5 Adaptation from Small-Scale Pilot Experience and Evaluation of Medium-Scale Deployment
3.5.1 Organizational
3.5.2 Cultural
3.5.3 Technical
3.5.4 Operational
3.5.5 Failures and Missteps
3.6 Adaptation from Medium-Scale Deployment and Evaluation of Large-Scale Deployment
3.6.1 Organizational and Cultural
3.6.2 Technical
3.6.3 Operational
3.7 Adaptation from Large-Scale Deployment to Sustainable Large-Scale Deployment
4 Lessons Learned
4.1 Continuous Monitoring Requires Continuous Upkeep
4.2 Global Solutions May Miss Local Context
4.3 University Lacks Financial Agility
4.4 Technology Usage Patterns Impact Design
5 Conclusion
References
7 Monitoring Industrial Pollution in India
1 The Development Challenge
2 Context
2.1 How Was the Project Location Chosen?
2.2 Identifying the Experimental Sample
2.3 How Does CEMS Work?
3 Innovate, Evaluate, Adapt
3.1 Setting Up an Evaluation
3.2 Implementation Challenges in the Field
3.2.1 Problems Encountered While Installing CEMS
3.2.2 Problems Encountered While Calibrating CEMS
3.2.3 Linking Data to Regulatory Practice
4 Did CEMS Work?
4.1 Assessing the Technical Performance of CEMS
4.2 Assessing the Usefulness of CEMS
4.3 Estimating the Impact of CEMS on Pollution Emissions
5 *6pt
6 Discussion Questions
References
Part II Market Performance: Technologies to Improve Agricultural Market Performance
Introduction
References
8 Digital Agricultural Extension for Development
1 The Challenge
1.1 What Limits Access to Agricultural Information?
1.2 The Potential of Digital Agriculture
2 Implementing Mobile Phone-Based Agricultural Extension Services
2.1 Current Approaches via Mobile Devices
2.1.1 Services That Rely on Text Messages
2.1.2 Services That Rely on Interactive Voice Responses (IVR)
2.1.3 More Advanced Technologies: Smartphones and Tablets
2.2 Implementation: Technological Considerations
2.2.1 Technology Infrastructure
2.2.2 Implementation Model: Product Considerations
3 Iterative Development
3.1 Approaches
3.2 Data and Measurement Issues
4 Innovations to Improve Impacts
4.1 Customization
4.2 Using Digital Technology to Facilitate Social Learning
4.3 Digital Support for Existing Extension Systems
5 Lessons Learned
References
9 Digital Trading and Market Platforms: Ghana Case Study
1 Development Challenge
1.1 Matching Supply and Demand
1.2 Price Information
1.3 Information on the Quality of Crops
1.4 Storage and Credit Market Failures
2 The Ideation
3 Implementation Context
4 Innovation
4.1 Price Alerts Services
4.2 Mobile Phone-Based Trading Platforms
4.3 Commodity Exchanges
5 Evaluation
6 Results and Lessons
6.1 Price Alerts Services
6.2 Commodity Exchanges
7 Conclusion
References
10 Fintech for Rural Markets in Sub-Saharan Africa
1 Development Challenge
2 Implementation Context
3 Innovate, Implement, and Evaluate
3.1 Innovation
3.2 Implementation
3.3 Evaluation
3.4 Adaptation
4 Results and Lessons Learned
5 Summary and Interpretive Text Boxes
6 Discussion Questions
References
Part III Expanding Human Potential: Technology-Based Solutions for Education and Labor
Introduction
References
11 Customised E-Learning Platforms
1 Development Challenge
2 Implementation Context
3 Innovate, Implement, Evaluate and Adapt
3.1 Innovation: Customised E-Learning Platforms
3.2 Implementation Approach
3.3 Evaluation: Research Approach
3.4 Adaptation: Scaling Approach
4 Results/Lessons Learned
References
12 Digital Networking and the Case of Youth Unemployment in South Africa
1 Development Challenge
2 Project Formation
2.1 Tailoring a Solution to the Local Context
2.2 Identifying a Local Partner
2.3 Defining and Refining the Problem Boundary
3 Innovate, Implement, Iterate, Evaluate, and Adapt
3.1 Innovation
3.2 Design and Implementation
3.3 Implementation Challenges and Iterations
3.4 Evaluation
3.5 Adaptation
4 Lessons Learned
A.1 Appendix
References
13 Amplifying Worker Voice with Technology and OrganizationalIncentives
1 Development Challenge
1.1 Establishing Connection: Workers in the Garment Industry
1.2 Attrition, Voice, and Worker Well-Being
1.3 A Lab for Good Business
2 Context for the Innovation
2.1 Existing Mechanisms for Worker Voice
2.2 Modeling the Factory Environment
3 Innovate, Evaluate, and Scale
3.1 Experiment No. 1: A Study of Worker Voice
3.2 Experiment No. 2: An Off-the-Shelf Software Solution
3.3 Experiment No. 3: A Custom Solution
3.4 Limitations and Future Developments of Inache
4 Lessons Learned
References
Part IV Water, Health, and Sanitation
Introduction
References
14 Stopping Arsenic Poisoning in India
1 Introduction and Overview
2 Problem Definition
2.1 Arsenic as Development Challenge
3 Approach
3.1 Theory of Change
3.2 Overview of Project Progression from Lab Bench to a Full-Scale Pilot
4 Implementing the Approach
4.1 Prior Experience
4.1.1 WaterHealth International
4.1.2 Arsenic in Bangladesh
4.2 The Amirabad Experience
4.2.1 Assessing Failure
4.3 The 600 L Prototype
4.4 Scaling Up and Commissioning the Demonstration Plant
4.5 Technical Challenges
4.6 Implementation Challenges
5 Reaching Scale: Opportunities and Challenges
5.1 Lessons Learned from Innovation, Implementation, Evaluation, and Adaptation
5.2 ECAR Business Model
6 Results and Lessons Learned
6.1 Cost of Reducing Cancer Risk by Removing Arsenic from Drinking Water
6.2 Looking Back and Adapting to New Contexts
7 Summary of Key Actions as Viewed by the Team
8 Interpretive Text Boxes
References
15 Sensing Change: Measuring Cookstove Adoption with Internet-of-Things Sensors
1 The Challenge of Measuring Impact
1.1 Surveys Collect Bad Data
1.2 Sensors Collect Good Data, But It's Hard to Do It Right
2 Monitoring Cookstove Adoption with Sensors
2.1 Darfur
2.1.1 Implementation Context
2.2 Innovate, Implement, Evaluate, and Adapt
2.2.1 The Lead-Up
2.2.2 The Study
2.2.3 After the Study
2.2.4 What We Learned
2.2.5 Where We Went Next
3 Summary
References
16 Reimagining Excreta as a Resource: Recovering Nitrogen from Urine in Nairobi, Kenya
1 Development Challenge (Problem Identification)
1.1 Sanitation as Development Challenge
1.2 Partnership Between UC Berkeley and Sanergy
1.3 Problem Iteration
1.4 Lessons from Problem Definition
1.4.1 Problem Definition: Access to Sanitation and Fertilizer
1.4.2 Theory: Circular Economy and Resource Recovery
1.4.3 Observation-Driven: Valorizing Urine
2 Implementation Context
2.1 Partners and Implementation Setting
2.2 Aligning Incentives
2.3 Overcoming Constraints
2.4 Lessons Learned from Implementation
3 Innovate, Implement, Evaluate, and Adapt
3.1 Innovation
3.1.1 Technology
3.1.2 Theories of Change: Fertilizer and Agriculture
3.1.3 Markets/Economic Sustainability
3.1.4 Environmental Sustainability
3.2 Iterative Implementation
3.2.1 Laboratory Research and Implementation
3.2.2 Education and Funding
3.3 Adaptation
3.3.1 Reaching Scale: Scaling Down to Toilet-Level Recovery and Scaling Up to Pilot
3.3.2 Current State of Technology
3.3.3 Reaching Scale: Opportunities and Challenges
3.3.4 Adapting to New Contexts
4 Results/Lessons Learned
4.1 Context and Vision for Our Results
4.2 Pivots
4.3 Ongoing and Future Work
5 Summary and Interpretive Text Boxes
References
17 Engineering Predictable Water Supply: The Humans Behind the Tech
1 Introduction
2 The NextDrop System: An Overview
3 From Idea to Pilot to Scale-Up
3.1 Idea Formation at UC Berkeley, USA
3.2 Pilot in Hubli-Dharwad, India
3.3 Scale-Up in Bangalore, India
4 Research on the Scale-Up
4.1 Study 1: Impact Evaluation
4.1.1 Site Selection
4.1.2 Sample Selection and Randomization
4.1.3 Two-Wave Survey and Enrollment into NextDrop Services
4.1.4 Results
4.1.5 An “Information Pipeline” to Diagnose the Null Results
4.2 Study 2: Valvemen's Role and “Compliance” in NextDrop's System
4.2.1 Study Design to Understand Compliance Levels
4.2.2 Findings that Explained Overall Low Compliance
4.2.3 Findings that Explain Variation in Compliance
5 Subsequent Status of NextDrop
6 Key Takeaways for Development Engineers
References
Part V Digital Governance
Introduction
References
18 Protecting Electoral Integrity in Emerging Democracies
1 Development Challenge
2 Implementation Context
3 Innovate, Iterate, Evaluate, and Adapt
3.1 Innovation
3.2 Iterative Implementation
3.3 Evaluation
3.4 Adaption
4 Results/Lessons Learned
5 Summary
References
19 Monitoring the Monitors in Punjab, Pakistan
1 Development Problem
2 Implementation Context
3 Innovate, Iterate, Evaluate, and Adapt
3.1 Innovation
3.2 Iteration
3.3 Evaluation/Results
3.4 Adaptation
4 Lessons Learned
References
20 Digital Public Services: The Development of Biometric Authentication in India
1 Development Challenge
1.1 Overview of the Case Study
2 Implementation Context
2.1 Public Distribution System
2.2 National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
2.3 Social Security Pensions
3 Innovation
3.1 Reforms in Identification
3.2 Reforms in Payment Systems and Benefits Delivery
4 Implementation Challenges
4.1 Enrollment of Beneficiaries
4.2 Deduplication of Records
4.3 Authentication of Identity
4.4 Manual Overrides
4.5 Political Buy-In
4.6 Innovation and Iteration at Scale
5 Results from Large-Scale Evaluations
5.1 Experimentation at Scale
5.2 Results from the Evaluation of AP Smartcards
5.3 Results from the Evaluation of Aadhaar in Jharkhand
5.4 Summary
6 Conclusions
References
Part VI Connectivity: Digital Communication Technology
Introduction
Reference
21 Connecting Communities Through Mobile Networks:A Case Study of Implementing Community CellularNetworks in the Philippines
1 Introduction
2 Innovation
2.1 Technology
2.2 Operational Model
3 Implementation
3.1 Deployment Context
3.2 Implementation Challenges
3.3 Spectrum Negotiations
3.4 Stakeholder Needs and Interests
3.5 Unexpected Changes in the Field
4 Evaluation
4.1 Subscription and Usage
4.2 Technical Operations
4.3 Commercial Operations
4.4 Community Response
4.5 Personnel Retention
4.6 Trust and Community Relations
5 Adaptation
6 Discussion: Open Challenges
7 Summary and Conclusion
References
22 Voice Interfaces for Underserved Communities
1 Evolution of Voice Forums
2 Scaling Voice-Based Services
3 Managing Local Language Audio Content
4 Increasing User Retention
5 Managing Cost
6 Replication and Scale
7 Mechanisms of User Acquisition
8 Measuring Impact
9 Open Challenges
10 Summary
References
23 The Open Data Kit Project
1 Introduction
2 Development Challenge and Initial Design Decisions
3 Implementation Context
3.1 History
4 Innovation: The Open Data Kit Project
4.1 ODK 1 Tool Suite
4.2 Iterative Design with Users
4.3 Example ODK 1 Deployments
5 Evaluation and User Feedback
5.1 Creation of the Second Tool Suite
5.2 Multi-Perspective Design
6 Adaptation: ODK 2 and Extensibility Exploration
6.1 ODK 2 Mobile Frameworks
6.2 Example ODK 2 Deployments
7 Challenges and Lessons
8 Summary
9 Discussion Questions
References
Epilogue
Index