Introduction to Astronomy and Astrophysics

Foreword
Contents
1 Introduction
2 Spherical Astronomy
2.1 Coordinate Systems
2.1.1 Basic Principle for the Creation of Coordinate Systems
2.1.2 Horizon System
2.1.3 Equator System
2.1.4 Ecliptic System
2.1.5 Galactic System
2.1.6 Transformations of the Systems
2.2 The Time
2.2.1 Definitions, Solar Time and Sidereal Time
2.2.2 Calendar
2.2.3 The Star of Bethlehem
2.3 Star Positions
2.3.1 Constellations and Zodiac
2.3.2 Refraction
2.3.3 Aberration
2.3.4 Parallax
2.3.5 Precession, Nutation
2.3.6 Star Catalogues
2.3.7 Light Deflection and Exoplanets
2.4 Determination of Time and Place
2.4.1 Latitude
2.4.2 Time Determination
2.4.3 Modern Navigation Systems
2.5 Further Literature
Tasks
3 History of Astronomy
3.1 Astronomy of Pre- and Early History
3.1.1 Stone Age
3.1.2 Egypt, Mesopotamia
3.1.3 China
3.1.4 Central and North America
3.1.5 Old Europe
3.2 Astronomy of the Greeks
3.2.1 Philosophical Considerations
3.2.2 First Measurements
3.2.3 Navigation
3.3 Astronomy in the Middle Ages and Modern Times
3.3.1 Astronomy of the Arabs
3.3.2 Middle Ages
3.3.3 Geocentric → Heliocentric
3.3.4 Kepler, Galileo, Newton
3.3.5 Celestial Mechanics
3.4 Modern Astrophysics and Cosmology
3.4.1 The Discovery of Further Objects in the Solar System
3.4.2 Astrophysics
3.4.3 The Universe
3.4.4 Concluding Remarks
3.4.5 What is Matter?
3.5 Further Literature
4 Celestial Mechanics
4.1 Moon and Planetary Orbits
4.1.1 Description of Planetary Orbits, Orbital Elements
4.1.2 Ephemeris Calculation
4.1.3 Apparent Planetary Orbits in the Sky
4.1.4 Perihelion Rotation
4.1.5 Lunar Orbit
4.1.6 Exoplanet Tidal Locking
4.1.7 Tides
4.1.8 Comparison of Tidal Force of the Moon and Capillary Action in Plants
4.2 Two-Body Problem
4.2.1 Definition of the Two-Body Problem
4.2.2 Angular Momentum, Area Theorem
4.2.3 Orbit Shape
4.2.4 Energy Theorem
4.2.5 Third Kepler's Law
4.3 N-Body Problem
4.3.1 The General N-Body Problem
4.3.2 The General Three-Body Problem
4.3.3 Restricted Three-Body Problem
4.3.4 The Runge-Kutta Method for Numerical Integration
4.3.5 Stability
4.4 Many-Particle Systems
4.4.1 Virial Theorem and Distance of an Interstellar Gas Cloud
4.4.2 Ergodic Behavior
4.5 Spaceflight
4.5.1 Escape Velocities
4.5.2 Rocket Formula
4.5.3 Satellite in Earth Orbit
4.5.4 Influences on Satellite Orbits
4.6 Resonances and Chaos in the Planetary System
4.6.1 Chaos
4.6.2 Resonances in the Solar System
4.6.3 Migration of Planets
4.6.4 Chaos in the Solar System
4.7 Eclipses
4.7.1 Lunar Eclipses
4.7.2 Solar Eclipses
4.7.3 Planetary Transits
4.8 Further Literature
Tasks
5 Astronomical Instruments
5.1 Telescopes
5.1.1 Basic Properties
5.1.2 Seeing and Large Telescopes
5.1.3 Imaging Errors
5.1.4 Telescope Types
5.1.5 Telescope Mounts
5.1.6 Robotic Telescopes
5.2 Modern Optical Telescopes
5.2.1 Modern Earthbound Telescopes
5.2.2 The Hubble Space Telescope and Other Projects
5.3 Detectors
5.3.1 Human Eye and Photography
5.3.2 CCD
5.3.3 CMOS
5.3.4 Back-Illuminated Sensor
5.3.5 Speckle Interferometry
5.3.6 Image Correction
5.4 Non-Optical Telescopes
5.4.1 Radio Telescopes
5.4.2 Infrared Telescopes
5.4.3 X-Ray Telescopes
5.5 Spectroscopy
5.5.1 General Information About Spectroscopy
5.5.2 Types of Spectrographs
5.6 Radiation and Spectrum
5.6.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
5.6.2 Thermal Radiation
5.6.3 Emission and Absorption Lines
5.6.4 Polarized Light
5.6.5 Magnetic Fields and Radiation
5.6.6 Einstein Coefficients
5.6.7 Coherence
5.7 Further Literature
Tasks
6 Physics of the Solar System Bodies
6.1 Overview
6.1.1 Sun and Planets
6.1.2 A Model of the Solar System
6.1.3 The Solar System Seen from Outside
6.2 Properties of the Planets
6.2.1 Rotation Period
6.2.2 Mass Distribution
6.2.3 Albedo
6.2.4 Spectrum
6.2.5 Global Energy Budget
6.2.6 Hydrostatic Equilibrium
6.2.7 Stability of a Satellite, Roche Limit
6.2.8 Planetary Atmospheres
6.3 Earth and Moon
6.3.1 Structure of the Earth
6.3.2 Geological and Biological Evolution
6.3.3 Earth's Magnetic Field
6.3.4 Earth's Atmosphere
6.3.5 The Moon-General Porperties
6.3.6 Origin of the Moon
6.3.7 The Interior of the Moon
6.3.8 The Far Side of the Moon
6.4 Mercury and Venus
6.4.1 Mercury: Basic Data
6.4.2 The Rotation of Mercury
6.4.3 The Surface of Mercury
6.4.4 Venus: Basic Data
6.4.5 Surface of Venus
6.4.6 Atmosphere of Venus
6.4.7 Venus and Climate Change on Earth
6.5 Mars
6.5.1 Mars: General Data
6.5.2 Martian Surface
6.5.3 Mars Atmosphere
6.5.4 Mars: Terraforming?
6.5.5 Martian Moons
6.6 Jupiter and Saturn
6.6.1 Jupiter: General Properties
6.6.2 Space Missions to Jupiter
6.6.3 Structure of the Giant Planets
6.6.4 Jupiter Atmosphere
6.6.5 Magnetosphere of Jupiter
6.6.6 Jupiter's Rings and Moons
6.6.7 Saturn: Basic Data
6.6.8 Saturn's Rings
6.6.9 Saturn's Moons
6.7 Uranus and Neptune
6.7.1 Discovery of Uranus and Neptune
6.7.2 Rings and Satellites of Uranus and Neptune
6.8 Dwarf Planets and Asteroids
6.8.1 Pluto
6.8.2 Ceres and Other Dwarf Planets
6.8.3 Asteroids: Naming and Types
6.8.4 Distribution of Asteroids
6.8.5 NEOs
6.9 Comets
6.9.1 Comets: Basic Properties
6.9.2 Kuiper Belt and Oort's Cloud
6.9.3 Sungrazer
6.10 Meteoroids
6.10.1 Nomenclature
6.10.2 Classification
6.10.3 Interplanetary Matter
6.11 Origin of the Solar System
6.11.1 Extrasolar Planetary Systems
6.11.2 Theories of Formation
6.11.3 Protoplanetary Nebula
6.12 Further Literature
Tasks
7 The Sun
7.1 Basic Data and Coordinates
7.1.1 Basic Data
7.1.2 Coordinates
7.1.3 Distance
7.1.4 Solar Mass
7.1.5 Radius
7.1.6 Luminosity
7.1.7 Effective Temperature
7.1.8 Sun: Observation
7.2 The Structure of the Sun, the Quiet Sun
7.2.1 General Structure of the Sun
7.2.2 Sun's Interior
7.2.3 Photosphere
7.2.4 Chromosphere
7.2.5 Corona
7.3 The Active Sun
7.3.1 Sunspots
7.3.2 Faculae
7.3.3 Prominences
7.3.4 Flares and Coronal Mass Ejections
7.3.5 The Radio Radiation
7.3.6 X-rays of the Corona
7.4 The Space-Weather-Solar-Terrestrial Relations
7.4.1 The Solar Activity Cycle
7.4.2 Time Series, Period Analysis
7.4.3 The Solar Irradiance
7.5 Helioseismology
7.5.1 Mathematical Description
7.5.2 Observational Results
7.6 Magnetohydrodynamics of the Sun
7.6.1 Maxwell's Equations
7.6.2 Induction Equation
7.6.3 Plasma Equations
7.6.4 Motion of a Particle in a Magnetic Field
7.7 Further Literature
Tasks
8 State Variables of Stars
8.1 Distance, Magnitudes
8.1.1 Apparent Brightness
8.1.2 Distance
8.1.3 Absolute Brightness, Distance Modulus
8.1.4 Bolometric Brightness
8.2 Stellar Radii
8.2.1 Basic Principle
8.2.2 Stellar Interferometer
8.2.3 Stellar Occultations by the Moon
8.2.4 Eclipsing Variable Stars
8.2.5 Speckle Interferometry
8.2.6 Microlensing
8.3 Stellar Masses
8.3.1 Kepler's Third Law
8.3.2 Gravitational Red Shift
8.3.3 Microlensing
8.3.4 Derived Quantities
8.4 Stellar Temperatures
8.4.1 Stars as Black Bodies
8.4.2 Other Temperature Terms
8.5 Classification of Stars, HRD
8.5.1 Spectral Classification
8.5.2 The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
8.5.3 Luminosity Classes
8.5.4 Balmer Discontinuity
8.5.5 Star Population and FHD
8.5.6 The Mass-Luminosity Relation
8.6 Rotation and Magnetic Fields
8.6.1 Rotation
8.6.2 Magnetic Fields
8.7 Peculiar Stars
8.7.1 Bright Stars
8.7.2 Algol and Eclipsing Binaries
8.8 Further Literature
Tasks
9 Stellar Atmospheres
9.1 Quantum Mechanical Description
9.1.1 Description of a Particle
9.1.2 Schrödinger Equation
9.1.3 Wave Functions for Hydrogen
9.1.4 Quantum Numbers
9.1.5 Electron Configurations
9.1.6 Hydrogen Fine Structure
9.1.7 Complex Atoms
9.2 Excitation and Ionization
9.2.1 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
9.2.2 Boltzmann Formula
9.2.3 Saha Equation
9.3 Radiation Transport
9.3.1 Transfer Equation
9.3.2 Solutions of the Transfer Equation
9.4 Absorption Coefficients
9.4.1 Continuous Absorption
9.4.2 Scattering
9.4.3 Theory of Absorption Lines
9.5 Line Profiles
9.5.1 Damping
9.5.2 Doppler Broadening
9.5.3 Voigt Profile
9.6 Analysis of Stellar Spectra
9.6.1 Curves of Growth
9.6.2 Quantitative Spectral Analysis
9.7 Stellar Atmosphere Models
9.7.1 Comparison: Sun and Vega
9.7.2 Numerical Solutions
9.8 Asteroseismology
9.8.1 Observations
9.8.2 Types of Waves
9.9 Further Literature
Tasks
10 Stellar Structure
10.1 Basic Physical Laws of Stellar Structure
10.1.1 Hydrostatic Equilibrium
10.1.2 Equation of Motion with Spherical Symmetry
10.1.3 General Relativity
10.1.4 Equation of State
10.1.5 Degeneracy
10.1.6 Summary: Equation of State
10.2 Energy Transport
10.2.1 Convection
10.2.2 Opacity
10.3 Energy Sources
10.3.1 Thermonuclear Energy Production
10.3.2 Neutrinos
10.4 Special Stellar Models
10.4.1 Polytropic Models
10.4.2 Homologous Equations
10.5 Further Literature
Tasks
11 Stellar Evolution
11.1 Star Formation and Evolution
11.1.1 Protostars
11.1.2 Collapse of a Sun-Like Star
11.1.3 The Age of Stars
11.1.4 Evolution of a Star with One Solar Mass
11.2 Comparison of Stellar Evolution
11.2.1 Low-Mass Stars
11.2.2 Massive Stars
11.3 White Dwarfs
11.3.1 General Properties
11.3.2 General Relativity and White Dwarfs
11.3.3 Magnetic Fields
11.3.4 Brown Dwarfs
11.4 Neutron Stars
11.4.1 Formation of Neutron Stars
11.4.2 Pulsars
11.5 Supernovae
11.5.1 Classification
11.5.2 Nuclear Synthesis During a SN
11.5.3 Observed Supernovae
11.6 Black Holes
11.6.1 General
11.6.2 Candidates for Black Holes
11.6.3 Quantum Theory of Black Holes
11.6.4 Accretion
11.7 Gamma Ray Bursts
11.7.1 Properties of GRB
11.7.2 Explanation of GRB
11.8 Variable Stars
11.8.1 General
11.8.2 Pulsation Variable
11.8.3 Semi-regular Variables
11.8.4 Eruptive Variables
11.8.5 Peculiar Stars
11.8.6 Planetary Nebulae
11.9 Stellar Activity
11.9.1 Stellar Activity and Convection
11.9.2 Mass Loss of Stars
11.10 Further Literature
Tasks
12 Interstellar Matter
12.1 Discovery, General Properties
12.1.1 Discovery of Interstellar Matter
12.1.2 Composition of Interstellar Matter
12.2 Interstellar Dust
12.2.1 Extinction
12.2.2 Scattering
12.2.3 Polarization
12.3 Interstellar Gas
12.3.1 Neutral Hydrogen
12.3.2 Emission Nebulae, H-II Regions
12.3.3 Special Emission Nebulae
12.3.4 Light Echoes
12.4 Cosmic Rays
12.4.1 Discovery
12.4.2 Composition and Origin
12.4.3 Magnetic Fields and Charged Particles
12.4.4 Solar Activity and Cosmic Rays
12.5 Further Literature
Tasks
13 The Galaxy
13.1 Methods for Determining Distances
13.1.1 Trigonometric Methods
13.1.2 Photometric Standard Candles
13.2 The Structure of Our Milky Way
13.2.1 Rough Structure
13.2.2 Galactic Coordinates
13.2.3 Distribution of the Stars
13.2.4 Galaxy: Components
13.2.5 Local Solar Environment, Local Bubble
13.2.6 Stellar Statistics
13.3 Star Populations and Density Waves
13.3.1 Star Populations
13.3.2 Density Waves, Spiral Structure
13.4 Rotation of the Galaxy
13.4.1 Radial and Tangential Motion
13.4.2 Galactic Rotation, LSR
13.4.3 Galactic Rotation Curve
13.5 Dark Matter in the Milky Way
13.5.1 The Nature of Dark Matter
13.5.2 Galactic Microlensing
13.6 Galactic Center
13.6.1 Definition of the Center
13.6.2 Central Star Cluster and Black Hole
13.7 Evolution of the Galaxy
13.7.1 Theories to the Origin of the Spiral-Arms
13.7.2 Age of the Galaxy and Magnetic Field
13.8 Further Literature
Tasks
14 Extragalactic Systems
14.1 Classification
14.1.1 Catalogues
14.1.2 Hubble Classification
14.1.3 Active Galaxies
14.1.4 Other Classifications of Galaxies
14.2 Discussion of the Individual Types
14.2.1 Elliptical Galaxies, E
14.2.2 Spiral Galaxies
14.2.3 Irregular Galaxies
14.2.4 Distribution Among the Types
14.2.5 Integral Properties and Diameters
14.2.6 The Magellanic Clouds
14.2.7 Population Synthesis
14.3 Supermassive Black Holes
14.3.1 Detection of SMBHs
14.3.2 SMBHs and Galaxy Properties
14.4 Active Galaxies
14.4.1 Active Galactic Nuclei
14.4.2 Radio Galaxies
14.4.3 Quasars
14.4.4 Galaxies with High Red Shift
14.4.5 Blazar
14.5 Galaxy Clusters
14.5.1 The Local Group
14.5.2 Abell Catalogue of Galaxy Clusters
14.5.3 Galaxy Collisions
14.5.4 Super Cluster
14.5.5 Special Galaxy Clusters
14.6 Further Literature
Tasks
15 Cosmology
15.1 Expansion of the Universe
15.1.1 View into the Past
15.1.2 Olbers Paradox
15.1.3 Galaxy Counts
15.1.4 The Redshift of the Galaxies
15.1.5 The Age of the Universe
15.1.6 Homogeneity and Isotropy
15.1.7 Methods of Distance Determination
15.2 Newtonian cosmology
15.2.1 Expansion
15.2.2 Equation of Motion
15.2.3 Conservation of Energy
15.3 Theory of Relativity
15.3.1 Special Theory of Relativity
15.3.2 Four Vectors, Transformations
15.3.3 General Theory of Relativity
15.3.4 Matter and Space-Time Curvature
15.3.5 Metric of the Space
15.3.6 Friedmann-Lemaître Equations
15.3.7 The Cosmological Constant and Vacuum Energy
15.3.8 Gravitational Waves
15.4 Dark Energy, Accelerated Expansion
15.4.1 Observations
15.4.2 Dark Energy
15.5 The Early Universe
15.5.1 Big Bang: Observational Hints
15.5.2 Sunyaev-Zel'dovich Effect
15.5.3 Acoustic Oscillations
15.5.4 Formation of Particles
15.5.5 Quarks and Quark-Gluon Plasma
15.5.6 Particle Generation
15.6 Symmetry Breaking in the Early Universe
15.6.1 The Four Forces of Nature
15.6.2 The Early Universe
15.6.3 Inflationary Universe
15.6.4 String Theory
15.6.5 Quantum Foam
15.6.6 Quantum Vacuum
15.6.7 Loop Gravity, Quantum Loop Gravity
15.6.8 The First Stars
15.6.9 Parallel Universes
15.7 Time Scale
15.8 Further Literature
Tasks
16 Astrobiology
16.1 Life on Earth and in the Solar System
16.1.1 What Is Life?
16.1.2 Life on Earth
16.1.3 Protective Shields for Life on Earth
16.1.4 Life in the Solar System
16.2 Discovery of Extrasolar Planetary Systems
16.2.1 Astrometry
16.2.2 Radial Velocity Method
16.2.3 Light Curves, Transit Observations
16.2.4 Microlensing
16.2.5 Einstein-Beaming
16.2.6 Earth-Based Observations
16.3 Host Stars
16.3.1 Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
16.3.2 Habitable Zone
16.3.3 Examples
16.4 Further Literature
Tasks
17 Mathematical Methods
17.1 Python-a Crash Course
17.1.1 What Is Python?
17.1.2 A First Simple Python Program
17.1.3 Example: Brightness Measurements
17.2 Statistics
17.2.1 Mean Values
17.2.2 Distribution Functions
17.2.3 Moments
17.3 Curve Fits and Correlation Calculation
17.3.1 Fitting Curves, Least Squares Method
17.3.2 Correlations
17.4 Differential Equations
17.4.1 First Order Linear Differential Equations
17.4.2 Oscillator Equation
17.4.3 Partial Differential Equations
17.5 Numerical Mathematics
17.5.1 Interpolation Polynomials
17.5.2 Divided Differences
17.5.3 Newton's Interpolation Method
17.5.4 Interpolation with Unevenly Distributed Grid Points
17.5.5 Numerical Differentiation
17.5.6 Numerical Integration
17.5.7 Numerical Solution of Differential Equations
17.6 Fourier Methods
17.6.1 Autocorrelation
17.6.2 The Fast Fourier Transform, FFT
17.6.3 Digital Filters
17.6.4 Fourier Transforms in Optics
17.7 Vector Calculus
17.7.1 General
17.7.2 Gradient, Divergence, Curl
17.7.3 Applications
17.8 Splines
17.9 Special Software Packages
17.9.1 The Ephem Program Package
17.9.2 Calculation of the Light Curves of Exoplanet Transits
17.9.3 Image Processing
17.9.4 The File Format Fits
17.10 Further Literature
Tasks
A Appendix
A.1 Literature
A.1.1 General
A.1.2 Journals
A.1.3 Important Internet Addresses
A.1.4 Software (Professional)
A.2 Test Questions
A.3 Tables