Integration and Optimization of Unit Operations: Review of Unit Operations from R&D to Production: Impacts of Upstream and Downstream Process Decisions

Front Cover
Integration and Optimization of Unit Operations: Review of Unit Operations from R and D to Production: Impacts of Upstream ...
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Contents
Contributors
About the editor
Preface
Chapter 1: Crystallization
1.1. Fundamentals and laboratory scale process development
1.1.1. Crystallizer design basics
1.1.2. Crystallizer design tradeoffs
1.1.3. Upstream variables affecting crystallization
1.1.4. Impact on downstream operations
1.2. Pilot scale crystallization studies
1.2.1. Objectives for a pilot plant
1.2.2. Scale-up criteria
1.3. Commercialization of crystallization processes
References
Chapter 2: Fermentation and downstream processing: Part 1
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Microbiology and biochemistry basics
2.3. Fermentation media and environment
2.4. Growth kinetics and substrate utilization
2.5. From vial to production fermenter
2.6. Oxygen transfer and utilization
2.7. Mixing in aerobic fermentation vessels
2.8. Sterilization
2.8.1. Batch sterilization
2.8.2. Continuous sterilization
2.8.3. Filter sterilization of liquids
2.8.4. Filter sterilization of air
2.9. Heat generation
2.10. Scale-up
References
Chapter 3: Fermentation and downstream processing: Part 2
3.1. Fermenter design
3.1.1. Fermenters without mechanical mixers
3.2. Fermenter instrumentation, control and operation
3.2.1. Temperature
3.2.2. pH
3.2.3. Dissolved oxygen concentration
3.2.4. Mixer speed
3.2.5. Pressure
3.2.6. Gas flow rate
3.2.7. Liquid flow rate
3.2.8. Foam
3.2.9. Exit gas composition
3.2.10. Level
3.2.11. Substrate concentration
3.2.12. Power input
3.2.13. Redox potential
3.3. Continuous culture
3.4. Downstream processing
3.4.1. Monosodium glutamate
3.4.2. Phenethyl alcohol
3.5. Concluding remarks
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 4: Liquid filtration
4.1. Do you need a filter?
4.2. Lab testing before you choose the filter
4.3. Choosing the filter
4.3.1. Plate and frame filter press
4.3.2. Filter presses
4.3.3. Plate filters
4.3.4. Pressure leaf type filter
4.3.5. Nutsche filter
4.3.6. Polishing filter
4.4. The ABCs of liquid filtration
4.5. The mechanics of liquid filtration
4.5.1. Precoat
4.5.2. Filtration
4.5.3. Cleaning
4.5.4. Standby
4.6. Troubleshooting
4.7. The filter cake
4.8. Preventative maintenance program
Further reading
Chapter 5: Cake-building filter technologies
5.1. Batch processing of filter cakes
5.2. Contained filter presses for cake washing, dewatering, and drying
5.3. Nutsche filter and filter dryers
5.4. Continuous processing of filter cakes
5.4.1. Vacuum belt filters
5.4.2. Horizontal vacuum belt filters
5.4.3. Rotary vacuum drum filters
5.4.4. Rotary pressure filter
5.4.5. Pressurized vacuum drum filter
Chapter 6: Centrifugation
6.1. Centrifuge choice and analysis of available equipment
6.1.1. Horizontal basket centrifuges
6.1.2. Vertical basket centrifuges
6.2. Typical centrifuge operation
6.3. Technical considerations of equipment selection
6.3.1. Design basis document
6.4. Other considerations of centrifuge operation
6.4.1. Centrifuge inerting
6.4.2. General operation
6.4.3. Safety interlocks
6.4.4. Out of balance monitor
6.4.5. Plough parked
6.5. Final remarks
Chapter 7: Dryers
7.1. Purpose of drying
7.2. Dispersed solid-liquid system
7.3. Drying processes
7.4. Convective drying with hot gas
7.5. Conductive and radiative drying
7.6. Evaporation of liquid from a solid packing
7.7. Drying facilities
7.7.1. Grain-sunning ground
7.7.2. Tray dryer
7.7.3. Belt dryer
7.7.4. Rotary dryer (kiln)
7.7.5. Fixed bed dryer
7.7.6. Fluidized bed dryer
7.7.7. Pneumatic conveyor as dryer
7.7.8. Spray dryer
7.7.9. Impact mill as dryer
7.7.10. Rotating vessel dryer
7.7.11. Plate dryer
7.7.12. Roller dryer
7.7.13. Screw conveyor as dryer
7.7.14. Agitated mixer as dryer
7.8. Troubleshooting
7.8.1. Heat transfer
7.8.2. Level of vacuum
7.8.3. Formation of agglomerates and crust
References
Chapter 8: Pressure filter dryer
8.1. General considerations of using a pressure filter dryer
8.1.1. Pharma-specific considerations
8.2. Principles of the pressure filter dryer
8.3. Filter choice and analysis of available equipment
8.3.1. Selection of filter dryer type
8.3.1.1. Cost
8.3.1.2. Working volume
8.3.1.3. Cake discharge
8.3.1.4. Site requirements
8.3.1.5. Mechanical design features
8.4. Technical considerations of equipment selection
8.5. General operation of a pressure filter dryer
8.5.1. GMP issues and cleaning
8.5.2. Filter safety interlocks
8.5.3. Operational issues
8.6. Final remarks
Chapter 9: Process automation systems
9.1. Process automation in production facilities
9.2. Process control system (continuous process)
9.2.1. Controlling the process
9.2.2. Operating the plant
9.2.3. Integrating automation systems
9.2.4. Enterprise interfaces
9.2.5. Types of process control system
9.3. Process control systems (batch process)
9.4. Safety instrumented systems
9.4.1. Identifying the hazards
9.4.2. Assessing the risks
9.4.3. High integrity pressure protection systems
9.4.4. Cybersecurity risk assessment
9.4.5. Validation and proving
9.5. Alarm management systems
9.6. Machinery protection
9.6.1. Vibration monitoring system
9.6.2. Compressor and turbine control systems
9.7. Measurement, and other fun things to do with instruments
9.7.1. Diagnostics-Is it working?
9.7.2. Control in the field
9.7.3. The growth of digital communications protocols
9.7.4. HART
9.7.5. Fieldbus
9.7.6. Ditching the wires
9.7.7. Instrument asset management systems (IAMS)
9.8. The effect of technology on process automation
Chapter 10: Process automation life cycles
10.1. Planning for process automation
10.1.1. Operations and maintenance philosophy
10.1.2. Identify key automation systems and technology
10.1.3. Identify advanced control schemes
10.1.4. Estimate system size
10.1.5. Site planning overall philosophy
10.1.5.1. Process area instrument buildings size estimation
10.1.5.2. Central control room size estimation
10.2. Front end engineering design
10.2.1. Basic automation requirements
10.2.2. Advanced process control
10.2.3. The MAC, and why you should use one
10.2.4. Other automation systems
10.2.5. Functional safety
10.2.6. Change management for process automation
10.3. Delivery phase, detailed engineering, and procurement
10.3.1. Process automation design documentation
10.3.2. Automation system design and software configuration
10.3.3. Factory acceptance testing
10.3.4. Shipment and site preservation
10.4. Installation and commissioning
10.4.1. Manpower plan
10.4.2. Infrastructure and overheads plan
10.4.3. PAS media plan
10.4.4. PAS change management plan
10.4.5. PAS security plan
10.4.6. PAS integration plan
10.4.7. PAS maintenance plan
10.4.8. PAS user administration plan
10.4.9. PAS turnover plan
10.5. Automation system operation and obsolescence
10.5.1. Hardware maintenance and obsolescence
10.5.2. Software maintenance and change
10.5.3. Disaster recovery
10.6. Conclusion
Chapter 11: Process automation platforms
11.1. Background
11.2. Staffing of a manufacturing facility
11.3. Finding the balance
11.4. The new paradigm of autonomous operations
11.5. Upgrading the level of automation
11.6. Where to start when considering investment in higher levels of autonomy
11.7. Conclusions
Chapter 12: Mixing and blending
12.1. Introduction: Why mixing matters
12.2. Upstream considerations
12.2.1. Before the shafts
12.2.1.1. Types of tank jackets, advantage heat transfer
12.2.2. The first shaft
12.2.2.1. Case study example: Blade choice and efficiency
12.2.3. Distributive vs dispersive mixing
12.3. The second shaft
12.3.1. High speed dispersion and low speed scraping: The traditional dual-shaft mixer
12.3.2. More intense dispersion (double the shafts, quadruple the blades of a traditional disperser): The dual-shaft disp ...
12.3.3. Dual-shaft disperser case study and performance review
12.4. The third shaft
12.5. Additional mixer design considerations
12.6. Rheology considerations
12.7. Overmixing is just as bad as undermixing: Know the finishing point
12.7.1. Kitchen connection
12.7.2. Case study: ``Pancake lumps´´ on the production floor
12.7.3. Compensating behaviors result from inadequate products
12.8. Reliable scale-up
12.8.1. Hydraulic ram discharge press
12.9. Mechanical aspects and troubleshooting
12.9.1. Blade health
12.9.2. Understanding shear (rates and flow regimes)
12.10. Case study: Why push toward efficiency?
12.10.1. The old way: Paradigm
12.10.2. The new way: Break the paradigm
12.10.3. What was saved?
12.10.4. In conclusion: Every perspective matters
12.11. Final remarks
References
Further reading
Chapter 13: Process development and integration by mathematical modeling and simulation tools
13.1. Fundamentals and workflow
13.2. The steps for building a mathematical model
13.3. Steady-state and dynamic simulations
13.4. Process simulation for optimization
13.4.1. Construction of the optimization problem and its components
13.4.1.1. Degrees of freedom and constraints
13.4.1.2. Objective function
13.4.1.3. Classification of optimization problems
13.5. Process development workflow for continuous manufacturing
13.5.1. Process integration and steady-state simulation
13.5.2. Dynamic process modeling and control
13.6. Correlation between CQAs, CPPs, CMAs
References
Chapter 14: Process safety
14.1. Lab-scale operations
14.1.1. Safety and hazards
14.1.1.1. Process safety challenges
14.1.2. Key issues for lab-scale operation
14.1.2.1. Chemical reaction engineering
14.1.2.2. Unit operations
14.1.2.3. Process control and accuracy of measurement
14.2. Pilot plant operations
14.2.1. Safety and hazards
14.2.1.1. Process safety challenges
Safety in design
Safe handling of chemicals and solvents
Safe handling of compressed gases
14.2.2. Key issues for pilot plant operations
14.2.3. Pilot plant sizing, issues, decisions, and trade-offs
14.2.3.1. Technology development stage
14.2.3.2. Complexity of the technology
14.2.3.3. Miscellaneous
14.3. Production scale operations
14.3.1. Safety and hazards
14.3.1.1. Process safety challenges
14.3.2. Key issues for production scale operation
References
Chapter 15: Process commissioning
15.1. Commissioning
15.2. Competency
15.3. Checks prior to the start of commissioning
15.4. Commissioning protocols
15.5. Specific process engineering responsibilities
15.6. Handover of the plant to the user
15.7. Overall recommendations for process engineers
Appendix: Example Commissioning Protocol for a new Hydrochloric Acid Tanker Offloading Pump
Chapter 16: Holistic process integration and optimization: Large-scale hybrid process applications
16.1. Introduction
16.2. Life cycles of generic activities for large-scale bulk chemicals production
16.3. Systems integration design for specialty products manufacture and sales
16.4. Gated process development with digital interlinks
16.5. Digital control life cycles of integrated large-scale production plants
16.5.1. Configuring communications
16.5.2. Multivariable devices communication
16.5.3. Loop converters
16.5.4. Multiplexers
16.6. Environmental impact monitoring and control
16.6.1. Green process applications in process industries
16.6.2. Industrial emissions control strategies using digital platforms
16.6.3. Digital environmental sensor technologies
16.6.4. Digital platform construction for multivariate process and environmental datasets
16.6.5. Coupling environmental and process chemistry
16.6.6. Environmental emissions records and HAZOP studies
16.7. Systems integration of plant operations within eco-industrial parks
16.8. Conclusions
References
Chapter 17: From idea to 1 million ton year commercial plant
17.1. The framework
17.2. The execution
17.2.1. Concept and laboratory stage
17.2.2. Micro reactor stage
17.2.3. Pilot plant stage
17.2.4. Demonstration plant stage
17.3. At last: Safety first
Chapter 18: Scale-up challenges: Examples from refining and catalysis
18.1. Challenges in refining scale-up
18.2. Challenges in catalyst scale-up
18.3. Decision gate for catalyst scale-up
References
Chapter 19: Scale-up challenges: Wastewater
19.1. Challenges in wastewater treatment
References
Chapter 20: Hemp/biomass process steps
20.1. Hemp cultivation overview
20.2. Extraction
20.2.1. Ethanol
20.2.2. Gaseous hydrocarbon extraction
20.2.3. Liquid hydrocarbon extraction
20.2.4. Subcritical and supercritical carbon dioxide
20.2.5. Cosolvent injection
20.2.6. Solvent-less processes
20.2.7. Dry sifting
20.2.8. Cold water (kief) extraction
20.2.9. Distillation
20.3. Innovations and other extraction technologies
20.3.1. Ultrasonic processing
20.3.2. Hybrid microwave
20.3.3. Targeted cannabinoid salt precipitation
20.3.4. Winterization-purification
20.3.5. Organic solvent nanofiltration
20.4. Cannabinoid isolation
20.4.1. Decarboxylation
20.5. Conclusions
20.5.1. Hazardous installation requirements
20.5.2. Contamination and other process issues
References
Chapter 21: Techno-economic analyses
21.1. Introduction
21.1.1. Uses of a techno economic assessment
21.1.1.1. Stage-gate methodology for assessing projects
21.1.2. Decision making
21.1.2.1. Use of simple +/- grid for decision making
21.1.2.2. Use of Pugh matrix for decision making
21.2. Technology assessment
21.2.1. Definition of new technology
21.2.2. Feasibility: The first screen
21.2.3. Technology scalability to full-scale manufacturing
21.2.4. Technical success parameters
21.2.5. Types of technology risk
21.2.5.1. Why risks are not always addressed
21.2.6. Risk management plan
21.2.6.1. Risk identification
21.2.6.2. Risk prioritization
21.2.6.3. Assigning specific risk strategy
21.2.6.4. Risk tracking and reporting
21.2.7. Licensed technology
21.2.8. Investment in a start-up technology
21.2.9. Duplication of existing technology: A caution
21.2.10. Types of projects
21.2.11. Types of process technology
21.2.11.1. Large-scale commodities
21.2.11.2. Small volume specialty chemicals
21.2.11.3. Product by process
21.2.11.4. Hybrid and one-off processes
21.2.12. Batch vs. continuous mode
21.2.13. Technology package
21.3. Making cost-of-manufacturing estimates during the early stages of a project
21.3.1. Identifying variable and fixed costs
21.3.2. Variable costs
21.3.2.1. Raw materials
21.3.2.2. Waste treatment
21.3.2.3. Utilities
21.3.3. Fixed costs
21.3.3.1. Capital and capital depreciation
21.3.3.2. Operating costs
21.4. Putting the costs together: Example problems
21.5. Handling uncertainties during early project stages
21.6. Combining costs with revenues to compute economic indicators
21.6.1. Introduction to economic indicators
21.6.2. There are only two key questions
21.6.3. Risk and reward: Is there any data?
21.6.4. Financial indicators: Definitions
21.6.4.1. Discounted cash flow
21.6.4.2. Net present value (NPV)
21.6.5. Internal rate of return (IRR) or discounted cash flow percent (DCF%)
21.6.5.1. Return on investment (ROI)
21.6.5.2. Payback period
21.6.5.3. NPV example calculation #1
21.6.5.4. NPV example calculation #2
21.6.5.5. Discussion
21.6.6. Final summary
References
Chapter 22: Project management
22.1. Introduction
22.2. The project engineering process
22.2.1. Integrating course work in chemical process engineering
22.3. Predictive tools
22.4. Industries served by process engineers
22.5. Process plant components
22.6. Process safety and process engineering work flow
22.7. Putting it all together with practical knowledge
22.7.1. Selecting the site or living with the selection handed to you
22.7.1.1. Greenfield
22.7.1.2. Brownfield
22.7.1.3. Retrofit and expansion: Documenting existing layout
22.7.2. Site issues
22.7.2.1. Soil conditions
22.7.2.2. Utilities
22.7.2.3. Local codes and permits
22.7.2.4. Access and storage for construction, materials and equipment deliveries
22.7.2.5. Environmental impacts and erosion control
22.7.3. Common concerns: Funding, control of site
22.7.4. Community issues: Tax incentives, sales tax, resources, and workforce supply
22.8. Engineering: In-house resources and EPC firms
22.8.1. Forming the team
22.8.2. Selecting the engineering, procurement, and construction (EPC) firm
22.8.3. The all-important PandID development
22.8.4. Controls and control room concerns
22.8.5. QA/QC needs
22.8.6. Facilities and equipment for operations and maintenance
22.8.7. Hazard analysis: Is it required or just a good practice
22.8.8. Project management
22.8.9. Scheduling
22.9. Project execution
22.9.1. Organization and planning
22.9.2. Sitework and utility supply
22.9.3. Foundations and steel erection
22.9.4. Setting equipment
22.9.5. Piping
22.9.6. Power distribution
22.9.7. Control networking and field instruments
22.9.8. Project controls: Schedule and budget
22.9.9. Operator training
22.9.10. Commissioning, qualification batches and testing and start-up
Chapter 23: Decommissioning
23.1. Options for decommissioning
23.2. How to begin decommissioning
23.2.1. Decontamination
23.2.1.1. Decontamination stages
23.2.1.2. Implementation of the decommissioning project
23.2.2. Final steps of the decommissioning project
Index
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