Insect Behavior: From Mechanisms to Ecological and Evolutionary Consequences

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Insect Behavior: From mechanisms to ecological and evolutionary consequences
Copyright
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Contents
List of contributors
CHAPTER 1: Introduction
1.1 Introduction
References
CHAPTER 2: The genetics of reproductivebehavior
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Reproductive behaviors in insects are polygenic and each gene has a small effect
2.2.1 Exploring genetic variation in insect reproductive behavior using quantitative genetics
2.2.2 Estimating genetic variance and heritability for phenotypic traits
2.2.3 Empirical evidence from quantitative genetics for the polygenic control of reproductive behaviors in insects
2.2.4 Revealing specific gene effects through quantitative trait loci mapping and ‘omics’ approaches
2.2.5 Identifying QTLs and candidate genes of interest for insect reproductive behavior
2.2.6 Empirical evidence from QTL-based studies examining the polygenic control of reproductive behaviors in insects
2.3 Genes that have a major effecton insect reproductive behavior: the exception to the polygenic rule
2.4 Genes for reproductive behavior areoften linked to other traits
2.4.1 Estimating genetic correlations between traits using quantitative genetics
2.4.2 Empirical examples of genetic correlations between reproductive behavior and other traits in insects
2.5 Genes can have non-additive effects on reproductive behavior
2.5.1 Estimating the effects of dominance and epistasis on phenotype using quantitative genetics
2.5.2 Empirical examples of non-additive genetic effects for insect reproductive behavior
2.6 Genes for reproductive behavior frequently interact with the environment
2.6.1 Estimating GEIs and GSEIs for phenotypic traits using quantitative genetics
2.6.2 Empirical examples of GEIs for insect reproductive behavior
2.7 Wider evolutionary implications and areas for future research on the genetic architecture of insect reproductive behavior
References
CHAPTER 3: Neurobiology
3.1 Methods in insect behavioral neurobiology
3.2 The insect nervous system
3.2.1 General structure
3.2.2 Neurons and glia
3.3 Control of behavior by characterized brain regions
3.3.1 Vision: optic lobes
3.3.2 Olfaction: antennal lobes
3.3.3 Integration and learning: mushroom bodies
3.3.4 Navigation and motor control: central complex
3.4 Metamorphosis and nervous system plasticity
3.4.1 Restructuring of the nervous system during metamorphosis
3.4.2 Plasticity of the adult nervous system
3.5 Case study: neurons and circuits for Drosophila sexual behavior
Acknowledgement
References
CHAPTER 4: The role of hormones
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Behavior and hormonally-controlled life-stage transitions
4.3 Polyphenisms and behavior
4.4 Hormones, receptors, and sensitive periods
4.5 Hormonally-induced behaviors associated with moulting and metamorphosis
4.6 Hormones and migration
4.7 Hormonal control of pheromone production and mating activity
4.8 Hormones and parental care
4.9 Dominance and social behavior
4.10 Conclusions
References
CHAPTER 5: Phenotypic plasticity
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Phenotypic plasticity, genes, and environments, and their interaction
5.1.2 Sources of behavioral variability
5.2 Polyphenisms
5.2.1 Social context and polyphenisms
5.2.2 Nutritional context and polyphenisms
5.2.3 Seasonal context and polyphenisms
Diapause
Migration
5.3 Gene-by-environment interactions (GxE)
5.3.1 The Drosophila foraging gene model
5.3.2 Phenotypic plasticity and the Drosophila foraging gene
5.3.3 The foraging gene in eusocial insects
5.3.4 Pleiotropy and the foraging gene
5.3.5 Trade-offs
Horned and hornless beetles
Parasitoids
5.4 Potential molecular mechanisms of plasticity: behavioral epigenetics
5.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
CHAPTER 6: Habitat selection and territoriality
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Adult sex roles and behavior
6.3 Mating habitats, site selection, and territoriality
6.3.1 The spatiotemporal basis of mating habitats
6.3.2 The occurrence and economics of site defence
6.3.3 Encounter site fidelity
6.3.4 Contest form
6.4 The logical basis of dyadic contests
6.4.1 Fighting ability, resource value, and motivation
6.4.2 The availability and assessment of information
6.4.3 Convention
6.5 The functional basis of competitive ability
6.5.1 An empirical framework
6.5.2 Physical determinants of RHP
6.5.3 Subjective RV and motivation
6.6 Residency and role-related phenomena
6.6.1 Residency-based convention
6.6.2 Contestant roles: know thy challenger?
6.6.3 Time-in-residency effects
6.6.4 Dear enemies or nasty neighbours?
6.7 Future research prospects
References
CHAPTER 7: Long-range migration and orientationbehavior
7.1 Introduction
7.2 What is migration?
7.2.1 The migration syndrome
7.2.2 A Holistic Model—the Migration System
7.3 Migration through the atmosphere
7.4 Orientation behavior of insect migrants
7.4.1 The initiation of migration and the orientation at take-off
7.4.2 Orientation in the ‘transmigration’ phase
7.4.3 The termination of migration: fallout and settling behavior
7.5 Some examples of long-range insect flight trajectories and population trajectories
7.6 Population consequences of migration
7.7 Environmental change and migration
7.8 Some outstanding questions and issues in insect migration behavior
7.9 Concluding remarks
References
CHAPTER 8: Feeding behavior
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Patterns of feeding: control of meals and inter-meal intervals
8.3 Automating the recording of feeding behavior
8.4 Regulation of multiple nutrient intakes
8.5 Physiological and molecular mechanisms of appetite in Drosophila
8.6 The geometric framework
8.7 Using the geometric framework to map the consequences of feeding behavior for individuals
8.8 Microbial associations, parasites, and immunity
8.9 Beyond the individual: social interactions
8.10 Trophic interactions and ecosystem dynamics
8.11 Contribution of insects beyond entomology
8.12 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
CHAPTER 9: Anti-predator behavior
9.1 Overview
9.2 Some simple ways of classifying anti-predator defences
9.3 Anti-predator behavior as partof a primary defence
9.3.1 Seek (or create) a refuge
9.3.2 Micro-habitat selection
9.3.3 Behavioral mimicry
9.3.4 Warning displays
9.4 Anti-predator behavior when the primary defence fails
9.4.1 Flee
9.4.2 Startle defences
9.4.3 ‘Death feigning’ (tonic immobility)
9.4.4 Fighting back
9.5 The comparative approach to understanding variation in anti-predator
9.6 Conclusions
References
CHAPTER 10: Chemical communication
10.1 What is communication?
10.2 What makes chemical communication special?
10.2.1 Specificity
10.2.2 Cost
10.2.3 Directionality
10.2.4 Speed
10.2.5 Persistence
10.2.6 Susceptibility to eavesdropping
10.2.7 Physical and energetic limits
10.2.8 Chemical diversity
10.3 The detection versus reliability problem
10.4 Chemical compounds as mediators of conflict and resolution
10.5 Honest signals
10.6 Deceptive signals
10.7 Chemical communication and higher-order processes
10.8 Conclusions
References
CHAPTER 11: Visual communication
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Physiology: structure and optics of the compound eye
11.3 Ecology: Senders, receivers, and signalling environments
11.3.1 Signal generation
11.3.2 Signal transmission
11.3.3 Signal reception and processing
11.4 Evolution: forms and function of visual communication
11.4.1 Visual communication between mates
11.4.2 Visual communication between rival conspecifics
11.4.3 Visual communication in cooperation among conspecifics
11.4.4 Protective signalling to avoid predation
11.5 Conclusion
References
CHAPTER 12: Acoustic communication
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The behavioral context for signalling
12.2.1 Mate attraction
12.2.2 Agonistic interactions between males
12.2.3 Spacing
12.2.4 Courtship
12.3 Signal production
12.3.1 Far-field sound
12.3.2 Near-field sound
12.3.3 Substrate vibration
12.4 The transmission channel forthe signal
12.4.1 Transmission of air-borne sound:geometric spreading, excess attenuation,and degradation of temporal cues
12.4.2 Noise in the air-borne sound channel
12.4.3 Transmission of substrate vibrations
12.4.4 Noise in the vibratory channel
12.5 Localization of the signal
12.6 The costs of acousticcommunication: ‘unintended receivers’ (see ‘eavesdropping’ in Chapter 10)
12.7 The receiver: insect ears
12.7.1 Evolution of ears in two behavioral contexts: intraspecific communication andpredator avoidance
12.7.2 Receptor organs for near-field and far-field sound and substrate vibrations
Antennal ears for near-field sound
Tympanal ears for far-field sound
Vibration receptors
12.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
CHAPTER 13: Reproductive behavior
13.1 Introduction to reproductive behavior
13.1.1 Basic anatomy and physiology
13.1.2 Parental investment
13.1.3 Sexual selection
13.1.4 Mating systems
13.2 Pre-copulatory behavior
13.3 Copulatory behavior
13.3.1 Sperm transfer
13.3.2 Mating positions
13.3.3 Copulatory sexual conflict
13.4 Post-copulatory behavior
13.4.1 Sperm competition
13.4.2 Cryptic female choice
13.5 Conclusions
References
CHAPTER 14: Parental care
14.1 Forms of parental care
14.1.1 Pre–ovipositional parental care
14.1.2 Post-ovipositional parental care
14.2 Evolution of parental care
14.2.1 Origin of care
14.2.2 Transitions in care
14.2.3 Which sex cares?
14.2.4 Uniparental male care
14.2.5 Biparental care
14.3 Concluding remarks
References
CHAPTER 15: Sociality
15.1 Introduction
15.2 What is social living?
15.2.1 Fitness contexts for sociality
Cooperation and fitness outcomes
15.3 Insect social diversity
15.3.1 A taxonomy of insect social groups
15.3.1.1 Communal groups: cooperation without strong altruism
15.3.1.2 Subsocial or family groups
15.3.1.3 Semisocial groups, groups of adult siblings
15.3.1.4 Eusociality
15.3.1.5 Eusociality: direct and indirect fitness benefits
15.4 Behavioral and ecological contexts for sociality
15.4.1 Insect life history and constraints on social evolution
15.5 Conclusion
References
CHAPTER 16: Personality and behavioral syndromes in insects and spiders
16.1 History and novelty
16.2 Behavioral traits and their assays
16.2.1 Behavioral axes
Boldness
Common assays
Rationale
Aggressiveness
Common assays
Rationale
Sociability
Common assays
Rationale
Exploration
Common assays
Rationale
Activity level
Common assays
Rationale
16.2.2 Methodological considerations
16.3 Intraindividual variability andbehavioral reaction norms
16.3.1 Intraindividual variability
16.3.2 Behavioral reaction norms
16.4 Mechanisms of behavioral syndrome emergence
16.4.1 Genetic and neuroendocrine mechanisms of behavioral syndromes
16.4.2 Development, ontogeny, and experience
16.5 Repeatability and behavioral syndromes across metamorphosis
16.6 Personality and sociality
16.6.1 Colony composition
16.6.2 Social spiders
16.7 Behavioral syndromes and reproduction
16.7.1 Mating assortativity
16.7.2 Cross-contextual trade-offs: the aggressive spillover hypothesis
16.7.3 Individual variation and population voltinism
16.8 Ecological consequences of insect behavioral syndromes
16.8.1 Species interactions
16.8.2 Behavioral type × behavioral type interactions
16.8.3 Group and population level ecology
16.9 Applications for applied insect behavior
16.9.1 Agricultural pests and invasive species
16.10 Conclusions
References
CHAPTER 17: Cognition and learning
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Insect cognition
17.3 Adaptive significance of insects’ cognitive traits
17.3.1 Night vision
17.3.2 Memory
17.3.3 Decisions
17.4 Insect learning
17.4.1 Variation, change, and phenotypic modification
17.4.2 Learning as a special type of phenotypic plasticity
17.4.3 Measuring learning
17.5 Adaptive significance of insect learning
17.6 Social learning in insects
17.6.1 Social learning: uniqueness and prevalence
17.6.2 Social learning in social insects
17.6.3 Social learning in non-social insects
17.6.4 Adaptive significance of insect social learning
17.7 Conclusions and prospects
Acknowledgements
References
CHAPTER 18: The influence of parasites
18.1 Background
18.2 Infection avoidance behavior in insects
18.2.1 Spatial avoidance
18.2.2 Temporal avoidance
18.2.3 Trophic avoidance
18.2.4 Altered mate preference
18.2.5 Decreased social contact
18.2.6 Niche construction and maintenance
18.2.7 Grooming
18.2.8 Medication
18.2.9 Integrated studies of infection avoidance
18.3 Behavioral changes in infected insects: sickness behaviors as host adaptations
18.3.1 Infection-induced lethargy
18.3.2 Decreased social contact and isolation
18.3.3 Infection-induced anorexia
18.3.4 Dietary self-medication
18.3.5 Behavioral thermoregulation
18.4 Behavioral changes in infected insects: host manipulation as a parasite adaptation
18.4.1 Manipulation of concealment behaviors of parasitized hosts
18.4.2 Increased defensiveness of moribund hosts protecting parasitoids
18.4.3 Manipulation of host sexual or social behavior
18.4.4 Manipulation of behavior of insect vectors
18.4.5 Manipulation in an ecological context
18.4.6 Manipulation in an evolutionary context
18.5 Concluding remarks: future directions in the study of insect behavior in relation to parasites
References
CHAPTER 19: Behavioral, plastic, and evolutionary responses to a changing world
19.1 Introduction: types of responses to environmental change
19.2 Evaluating the frequency and importance of various responses to environmental change
19.3 Exemplary behavioral responses of insects to environmental change
19.3.1 Behavioral dispersal and mobility traits
19.3.2 Diapause behavior
19.3.3 Behavioral traits facilitating homeostasis
Thermoregulation
19.3.4 Foraging
19.3.5 Reproductive behavior
19.3.6 Social behavior (and learning)
19.4 Conclusions
References
CHAPTER 20: Behavior-based control of insect crop pests
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Aspects of life cycles and behavioral repertoires utilized for control
20.2.1 Overview of behavior-based control strategies
20.3 Strategies
20.3.1 Mass trapping
20.3.2 Attract-and-kill
20.3.3 Auto-dissemination
20.3.4 Disruption of resources
Mating disruption
Pheromones
Sterile insect technique
Mechanical vibration
Host-plant location disruption
20.3.5 Push-pull
20.4 Case examples
20.4.1 Diptera
Overview of behavioral/ecological traits
Specific examples
Attract-and-kill: visual and food odours
Mass trapping/attract-and-kill: visual, food, and parapheromones
Attract-and-kill: visual, food, and sex pheromones
20.4.2 Lepidoptera
Overview of behavioral/ecological traits
Specific examples
Mass trapping: sex pheromones
Mating disruption: sex pheromones
Push-pull: repellent/attractant plants
Attract-and-kill: host plant odours
20.4.3 Coleoptera
Overview of behavioral/ecological traits
Specific examples
Mass trapping: aggregation pheromones and visual cues
Mass trapping: aggregation pheromones
Attract-and-kill: host plant odours
Mating disruption: sex pheromones
20.4.4 Hemiptera and Thysanoptera
Overview of behavioral/ecological traits
Specific examples
Host-plant location disruption: aphid alarm pheromones
Mating disruption: vibration
Host-plant location disruption: visual cues
20.5 Future approaches and concerns
20.5.1 Altered crops for anti-feedants or repellency
20.5.2 Role of climate change and greenhouse gas emission
20.5.3 Risks of behavior-based methods
References
CHAPTER 21: Behavior-based control of arthropod vectors: the case of mosquitoes, ticks, and Chagasic bugs
21.1 Arthropod disease vectors
21.1.1 Patterns and occurrence of major diseases transmitted by arthropod vectors
21.1.2 The need of behavior-based strategiesof control
21.2 Mosquitoes
21.2.1 Traditional mosquito control strategies
21.2.2 How mosquito behavioral ecology boost vector control?
Sound traps
‘Lure and kill’ technique
The sterile insect technique (SIT)
Genetically modified mosquitoes
21.2.3 Wolbachia endosymbiotic bacteria
21.2.4 Satyrization
21.2.5 Larval competition
21.3 Ticks
21.3.1 Traditional tick control strategies
21.3.2 Behavioral knowledge helps: pheromone-assisted tick control
21.4 Chagasic bugs
21.4.1 Traditional triatomine control strategies
21.4.2 Behavioral ecology to meet triatomine control
21.5 Concluding remarks
References
CHAPTER 22: Insect behavior in conservation
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Insect habitats
22.3 Status evaluation and monitoring
22.4 Perspective
22.5 A caveat!
22.6 Behavior and vulnerability
22.7 Dispersal and population structure
22.8 Mutualisms
22.9 Discussion
Acknowledgements
References
General Glossary
Index