Author(s): Gary Ritchison
Series: Fascinating Life Sciences
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2023
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
1: Origin and Evolution of Birds
1.1 Early Ideas About the Origin and Evolution of Birds
1.2 Current Views About the Origin and Evolution of Birds
1.3 Early Events in the Evolution of Birds
Box 1.1 Unidirectional Lung Ventilation
1.4 The Age of Dinosaurs
Box 1.2 A New Dinosaur Family Tree?
1.5 Theropods: Coelurosaurs
1.6 Theropod Locomotion
Box 1.3 Avian Forelimb Digits
1.7 Bones and Growth Rates
Box 1.4 Evolution of Endothermy
1.8 Body Size
1.9 Limb Length
1.10 Digestive and Reproductive Systems
1.11 Avian and Non-avian Theropods
1.12 The First Birds
Box 1.5 Loss of Teeth
Box 1.6 Evolution of the Avian Sternum
Box 1.7 Flying Ability of Mesozoic Birds
1.13 Ornithuromorpha (Also Known as Euornithes)
1.14 Neornithines
Box 1.8 The K/Pg Mass Extinction
Box 1.9 Avian Tree of Life
Box 1.10 Palaeognathae Evolution
Box 1.11 Galloanseres Phylogeny
Box 1.12 Limits to Phylogenetic Resolution
Box 1.13 Who Survived the End-Cretaceous Mass Extinction and Why?
Box 1.14 Strisores Phylogeny
1.15 Diversification After the K-Pg Mass Extinction
1.16 Passeriformes
Box 1.15 Avian Interchange Across the Panama Land Bridge
1.17 Present-Day Birds
Box 1.16 Zoogeographical Realms
Box 1.17 Seabirds
References
2: Skeleton and Skeletal Muscles
2.1 Bone Structure
Box 2.1 Bone Microstructure
2.2 Evolution of the Avian Skeleton
2.3 Pectoral Girdle and Forelimb
2.4 Pelvic Girdle and Hindlimb
Box 2.2 Which Digits Were Lost?
Box 2.3 Evolution of the Avian Wrist
Box 2.4 Avian Humeri
2.5 Axial Skeleton
2.5.1 Skull
2.5.2 Teeth
2.5.3 Cranial Kinesis
Box 2.5 Mandibular Bowing of Pelicans
Box 2.6 Darwin´s Finches, Adaptive Radiation, and Evolution
Box 2.7 Hawaiian Honeycreepers
2.5.4 Sternum and Rib Cage
Box 2.8 Bony Cranial Protuberances of Birds
Box 2.9 Rapid Adaptive Evolution of Bill Length
2.5.5 Vertebral Column
Box 2.10 Variation in Avian Sternums
Box 2.11 Neck Length and Body Mass: Birds vs. Mammals
2.5.6 Vertebral Column-Tail
2.6 Avian Skeletal Muscles
2.6.1 Flexibility in Muscle Mass
Box 2.12 Pygostyle Morphology
2.6.2 Fiber Types
Box 2.13 Skeletal Muscle Anatomy and Function
Box 2.14 Superfast Muscles of Some Manakins
2.6.3 Locomotion
Box 2.15 Myosin Isoforms
Box 2.16 Divided Pectoralis of Soaring Birds
2.6.4 Feeding
Box 2.17 Marvelous Tails (and Rectricial Bulbs) of Marvelous Spatuletails
2.6.5 Extrinsic Eyeball Muscles
2.6.6 Vocalizing
2.6.7 Thermoregulation
Box 2.18 Woodpecker Drumming Muscles
References
3: Integument
3.1 Skin: Structure and Function
Box 3.1 Evolution of Avian Skin
3.2 Unfeathered and Colored Skin
3.3 Specialized Epidermal Structures
3.4 Cutaneous Nervous System
3.5 Podotheca
3.6 Spurs
3.7 Claws
3.8 Rhamphotheca
Box 3.2 Keratins
3.9 Integument Glands
Box 3.3 Birds ``Feel´´ Their Prey Under the Sand
3.10 Feather Evolution
Box 3.4 Possible Sexual and Social Functions of Female Uropygial Gland Secretions
Box 3.5 Cosmetic Coloration
Box 3.6 Feather Protein Evolution
3.11 Evolution of Feather Function
Box 3.7 Structure and Properties of the Primary Flight Feathers of Birds
Box 3.8 A New Mechanism of Growth: Genes and Proteins
3.12 Feather Types and Functions
Box 3.9 Feathers from the Mid-Cretaceous
Box 3.10 Water and Ice Repellency of Contour Feathers
Box 3.11 Shape and Strength Recovery of Feathers
3.13 Pterylae and Apteria
3.14 Feather Color: Pigments
3.15 Feather Structural Colors
3.16 Iridescent Structural Color: Thin-Film Interference
3.17 Structural Color: Thin- and Multi-film Interference
3.18 Structural Colors Produced by Photonic Structures
3.19 Feather Color: Pigment Plus Structure
Box 3.12 Positioning Skin Follicles
3.20 Feather Parasites
Box 3.13 Male vs. Female Plumage Coloration
3.21 Preening and Other Defenses against Ectoparasites
References
4: Nervous System
4.1 Cognitive Abilities
Box 4.1 Examples of avian cognitive abilities
4.2 Avian Nervous System
4.3 Avian Brains
Box 4.2 The avian hippocampus
Box 4.3 Avian mesolimbic reward system and social behavior network
Box 4.4 Avian brain size evolution
4.4 Avian Sleep
Box 4.5 Neuronal densities in the avian brain and cognition
Box 4.6 Brain size and latitude
Box 4.7 Tool use by New Caledonian Crows
4.5 Sense Organs: General Receptors
Box 4.8 Parrots vs. primates
4.6 Olfaction
Box 4.9 Pain in birds
Box 4.10 Pressure sensory mechanism for prey detection
4.7 Taste
4.8 Vision
Box 4.11 Sugar tastes sweet to hummingbirds and songbirds
Box 4.12 Scleral (or sclerotic) rings
Box 4.13 Stereopsis
4.9 Avian Temporal Visual Acuity
4.10 Hearing
Box 4.14 Phototransduction
4.11 Static and Dynamic Equilibrium
4.12 Lumbosacral Organ
4.13 Hearing Ranges of Birds
4.14 Sound Localization
4.15 Hearing Underwater
4.16 Echolocation
Box 4.15 Intracranial cavities and directional hearing
Box 4.16 Oilbirds
References
5: Locating, Obtaining, Ingesting, and Digesting Food
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Avian Diets
5.2.1 Insectivores
Box 5.1 Foraging behavior of waterfowl
Box 5.2 Kleptoparasites
5.2.2 Invertivores
Box 5.3 Ecosystem services provided by avian insectivores
5.2.3 Frugivores
5.2.4 Granivores
5.2.5 Carnivores
Box 5.4 How do woodpeckers avoid head impact injury?
Box 5.5 Flush-pursuit foragers
Box 5.6 Surface tension transport
5.2.6 Scavengers
5.2.7 Nectarivores
Box 5.7 Fruit color and avian fruit selection
Box 5.8 Birds as seed dispersers
Box 5.9 Ballistic food transport
5.2.8 Herbivores
5.2.9 Omnivores
Box 5.10 Ingesting indigestible plastics
Box 5.11 Nonergodic hunting by raptors
5.3 Group or Flock Foraging
5.4 Interclass Cooperative Feeding
5.5 Avian Digestive System
5.5.1 Bird Bills
5.5.2 Oral Cavity
Box 5.12 Use of surface features as foraging cues for seabirds
Box 5.13 Riblets reduce drag for skimmers
Box 5.14 Kicking Secretarybirds
Box 5.15 Fish eating and refraction
Box 5.16 Prey dropping
5.5.3 Esophagus
Box 5.17 Arthropods and pollen in the diet of nectarivorous birds
5.5.4 Two-Part Stomach
Box 5.18 Birds as pollinators
Box 5.19 Nectar robbers
5.5.5 Small Intestine
Box 5.20 Evolution of the avian digestive system
5.5.6 Liver and Pancreas
5.5.7 Absorption
5.5.8 Ceca
Box 5.21 Evolution of bird bills
5.5.9 Large Intestine
5.5.10 Cloaca
5.6 Excretion
5.7 Retention Time and Digestibility
5.8 Phenotypic Plasticity
Box 5.22 Hummingbird hyoids
5.9 Food Intake Regulation
Box 5.23 Stomach oils of Procellariiform seabirds
Box 5.24 Preservation of stomach contents of incubating King Penguins
Box 5.25 Avian gastroliths
Box 5.26 Feather eating by loons and grebes
Box 5.27 Avian geophagy
Box 5.28 A missing enzyme
Box 5.29 Avian blood glucose levels
Box 5.30 The avian liver
Box 5.31 Avian gut microbiota
References
6: Cardiovascular and Immune Systems
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Avian Blood
6.3 Hematocrits
Box 6.1 Variation in the Size and Shape of Avian Erythrocytes
Box 6.2 Erythropoiesis
6.4 Hemoglobin
Box 6.3 Avian Red Blood Cells
Box 6.4 Partial Pressure
Box 6.5 Bar-Headed Geese
6.5 CO2 Transport in the Blood
6.6 Flight at High Altitudes
6.7 Embryonic Respiration
6.8 Diving Birds
6.9 Thrombocytes
6.10 White Blood Cells
6.11 Avian Immune System
Box 6.6 Avian Mast Cells
6.12 Significance of the Avian Immune System
6.13 Blood Parasites
Box 6.7 Antibody Diversity
6.14 Blood Plasma
6.15 Avian Heart
Box 6.8 Heart of an Acrobatic Bird
6.16 Blood Vessels
Box 6.9 Human vs. Bird Electrocardiograms
6.17 Blood Pressure and Blood Flow
References
7: Respiration
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Avian Respiratory System
Box 7.1 Procellariiform Birds: The ``Tube Knows´´ Air Speed?
7.2.1 Nasal Cavities
7.2.2 Larynx
7.2.3 Trachea
7.2.4 Lungs and Air Sacs
7.3 Ventilation
7.4 Metabolic Cost of Breathing
7.5 Ventilation During Locomotion
Box 7.2 Evolution of Avian Air Sacs
Box 7.3 Uncinate Processes and Avian Metabolic Rates
7.6 Movement of Air Through the Avian Respiratory System
Box 7.4 Loopy Network Model of Bird Lungs
7.7 Exchange of Gases
7.8 Control of Ventilation
References
8: Endocrine System
8.1 Endocrine Gland Hormones
8.2 Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland
8.2.1 Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone
8.2.2 Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide
8.2.3 Prolactin
8.2.4 Gonadotropin-Inhibitory Hormone
Box 8.1 Testosterone Levels in Sex-Role Reversed Species of Birds
8.2.5 Growth Hormone
8.2.6 Mesotocin and Arginine Vasotocin
Box 8.2 Crop Milk
8.3 Thyroid Gland and Hormones
Box 8.3 IGF-1 and Plumage Traits
8.4 Thyroid Hormones and Reproduction
8.5 Thyroid Hormones: Embryonic Development and Hatching
8.6 Thyroid Hormones and Migration
8.7 Calcium Homeostasis: Parathyroid and Ultimobranchial Glands
8.8 Adrenal Glands
Box 8.4 Thyroid Hormones and Molt
8.9 Hormones Important in Avian Feeding Behavior
8.10 Gastrointestinal Hormones and Digestion
8.11 Adipokines
8.12 Pancreas
References
9: Urinary System, Salt Glands, and Osmoregulation
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Intake of Water and Solutes
9.3 Water Loss
9.3.1 Cutaneous Water Loss
9.3.2 Respiratory Water Loss
Box 9.1 Water Availability at Migratory Stopover Sites
9.4 Water Balance and Long-Distance Flight
Box 9.2 Feather Reflectivity and Evaporative Water Loss
9.5 Kidney Structure and Function
Box 9.3 Climate Change and Desert Songbirds
9.6 Role of Cloaca and Lower Intestine in Osmoregulation
9.7 Nectar-Feeding Birds
9.8 Nitrogenous Waste
9.9 Salt Gland Structure and Function
Box 9.4 Are Birds Strictly Urocotelic?
References
10: Energy Balance and Thermoregulation
10.1 Evolution of Endothermy
10.2 Intraspecific Variation in BMR
10.3 Relationships Between BMR, Age, and Survival
10.4 Fitness-Related Effects of Individual Variation in BMR
10.5 Interspecific Variation in Basal Metabolic Rates
10.6 Latitude, Altitude, and Body Size
10.7 Phenotypic Flexibility in Avian Metabolic Rates
Box 10.1 Acclimatization vs. Acclimation
Box 10.2 Seasonal Acclimatization by American Goldfinches
10.8 Metabolic Rates and Migration
Box 10.3 Heat Production by Red Blood Cell Mitochondria
Box 10.4 Fats and Fat Metabolism
Box 10.5 Fruit as a Source of Antioxidants
Box 10.6 How Do Geolocators Work?
Box 10.7 Conserving Energy at Stopover Sites
10.9 Thermoregulation
10.10 Responses to Temperatures Above and Below Avian Thermoneutral Zones
Box 10.8 Metabolic Rates and Lower Critical Temperatures on Land and Water
10.11 Regulating Heat Gain and Loss
Box 10.9 Huddling by Emperor Penguins
10.12 Avian Hyperthermia
Box 10.10 Potential Roles of Activity and Eating on Reducing Thermoregulatory Costs
Box 10.11 Non-shivering Thermogenesis in Mammals
10.13 Avian Hypothermia
Box 10.12 Ptiloerection, Shivering, and Body Temperature
Box 10.13 Hypocapnia and Respiratory Alkalosis
10.14 Controlled, Facultative Hypothermia: Torpor
Box 10.14 Why Do Some Birds Have Bald Heads?
10.15 Controlled, Facultative Hypothermia: Hibernation
Box 10.15 Summer Temperature and Bill Surface Area of Sparrows
Box 10.16 Extreme Hyperthermia Tolerance of Red-Billed Queleas
Box 10.17 A Cost of Being Cool
Box 10.18 Fat Accumulation in Wintering Songbirds
References
11: Avian Locomotion: Flying, Running, Walking, Climbing, Swimming, and Diving
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Evolution of Flight
Box 11.1 Evolution of the Avian Wing
Box 11.2 Four-Winged Dromaeosaurids
Box 11.3 Solnhofen and Jehol Paleoenvironments
Box 11.4 Proto-Wingbeat Long Jumping
11.3 Flying
11.3.1 Lift
Box 11.5 Wing (and Feather) Morphing
Box 11.6 Alulas in the Fossil Record
Box 11.7 Interspecific Differences in Alulae
11.3.2 Thrust
11.3.3 Drag
Box 11.8 Wing Color, Drag, and Flight Performance
11.3.4 Wing Shape
Box 11.9 Emarginate Outer Primary Feathers
11.3.5 Wing Loading
11.3.6 Banking
11.4 Flying in Cluttered Habitats
11.5 Flight Styles
11.5.1 Gliding and Soaring
Box 11.10 Wind-Drift Circling Soaring by Great Frigatebirds
11.5.2 Dynamic Soaring
11.5.3 Sea-Anchor Soaring
11.5.4 Wave-Meandering Wing-Sailing
11.5.5 Wave-Slope Soaring
11.5.6 Flapping Flight
11.5.7 Flap-Bounding and Flap-Gliding
11.6 Flight Speed
11.7 Hovering
11.8 The Role of Bird Tails in Flight
11.9 Maneuverability
11.10 Take-Off and Landing
Box 11.11 Age-Specific Decline in Take-Off Performance
Box 11.12 Using Drag to Take Flight
Box 11.13 Using Lift as a Brake
Box 11.14 Whiffling
11.11 Energetics of Flight
Box 11.15 Flying Generates Heat
Box 11.16 Contorted Soaring
11.12 Loss of Flight
11.13 Nonflying Modes of Locomotion
11.13.1 Walking, Running, Hopping, and Waddling
Box 11.17 Body Mass and Bipedal Locomotion
Box 11.18 Running Shorebirds
11.13.2 Climbing
11.13.3 Aquatic Locomotion
Box 11.19 Unusual Feathers of Cormorants
Box 11.20 Formation Swimming by Ducklings
References
12: Sound and Vocal Production and Function
12.1 Introduction
Box 12.1 Terminology
Box 12.2 Anthropogenic Noise and Bird Vocalizations
12.2 Sound Production: Nonvocal
Box 12.3 Woodpecker Drumming
12.3 Sound Production: Vocal
12.4 Two Sound Sources
12.5 Syringeal Membrane Oscillation
12.6 Source-Filter Supra-Syringeal Structures
12.7 Vocalizing and Breathing
12.8 Sexual Dimorphism in Syringeal Anatomy
12.9 Vocal Sacs and Closed-Beak Vocalizations
Box 12.4 Tracheal Elongation
12.10 Central Motor Control of Song
12.11 Seasonality of Song
12.12 Sex Differences in the Song Control System
12.13 Classification of Vocalizations
Box 12.5 Locatability
Box 12.6 Distress Calls
12.14 Referential Calls
12.15 Learning Calls
12.16 Variation Among Species in the Size of Call Repertoires
Box 12.7 Geographic Variation in Parrot Contact Calls
12.17 Functions of Bird Song
12.18 Structure and Function of Female Songs
12.19 Song Learning by Females
12.20 Geographical Variation in Songs
Box 12.8 Latitudinal Variation in Bird Song
12.21 Song Repertoires
12.22 Energetic Cost of Singing
12.23 Song Learning by Males
12.24 Why Learn Songs?
12.25 Vocal Mimicry
12.26 Duetting
12.27 Group Choruses
12.28 Male Cooperative Courtship
Appendix: Non-song Call Repertoires Among Several Different Taxa and Species of Birds
References
13: Migration
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Origin of Avian Migration
13.3 Migratory and Sedentary Behaviors of Present-Day Birds
Box 13.1 Origin of Migratory Species and Populations
13.4 Migration Distance, Routes, and Heights
Box 13.2 Effect of Climate Change on Shorebird Nest Predation
Box 13.3 Afro-Palearctic Landbird Migration
13.5 Differential and Partial Migration
Box 13.4 Gliding Speed of Migrating Birds that Rely on Soaring
13.6 Altitudinal Migration
13.7 Loop and Figure-Eight Migration Routes
13.8 Reverse Migration
Box 13.5 Obligate Versus Facultative Migration
13.9 Stopover Sites
13.10 Migration in the Neotropics
13.11 Seasonal Differences
13.12 Timing of Migration
13.13 Protandry
13.14 Diurnal Versus Nocturnal Migration
Box 13.6 Hyperthermia and Flight Duration of a Short-Distance Migrant
Box 13.7 Bats Preying on Migrating Birds
13.15 Bird Migration and Climate Change
Box 13.8 Nocturnal Departure Times
References
14: Navigation and Orientation
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Compass Orientation: Star Compass
14.3 Compass Orientation: Sun Compass
14.4 Compass Orientation: Polarized Light
14.5 Compass Orientation: Magnetic Cues
Box 14.1 Radical-Pair Magnetoreception
14.6 Navigation
Box 14.2 Source of the Ophthalmic Branch Magnetic Sense
14.7 True Navigation
Box 14.3 Eurasian Reed Warblers Used Magnetic Declination to Determine Longitude
14.8 Long- and Short-Range Navigation
Box 14.4 Avian Compass Systems and Calibration
14.9 Noncompass Orientation
14.10 Navigation and the Hippocampus
14.11 Topographical Features and Landmarks
14.12 Olfactory Navigation
14.13 Possible Use of Infrasounds
Box 14.5 Olfactory Navigation by Seabirds
Box 14.6 Using Infrasounds to Avoid Tornadoes?
References
15: Mating Systems
Box 15.1 Evolution of Anisogamy
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Mating Systems of Avian Ancestors
15.3 Avian Mating Systems
Box 15.2 Male Mating Coalitions
15.4 Evolution of Avian Mating Systems
Box 15.3 Avian Sex Ratios
Box 15.4 Floaters
15.5 Sexual Conflict and Cooperation
15.6 Social Monogamy, Genetic Monogamy, and Genetic Promiscuity
Box 15.5 Sexual Conflict and Avian Genitalia
Box 15.6 Parental Conflict in Birds
Box 15.7 Avian Generation Lengths
Box 15.8 Males Feeding Mates
Box 15.9 Male Paternity Assurance Behavior
Box 15.10 MHC Genes and Avian Immunity
15.7 Polygyny
Box 15.11 Adaptive Sleep Loss in Polygynous Pectoral Sandpipers
Box 15.12 Leks and Kin Selection
Box 15.13 Bills as Daggers
15.8 Polyandry
Box 15.14 Diverse Plumages and Mating Strategies of Male Ruffs
15.9 Polygynandry
15.10 Cooperative Breeding
15.11 Non-Kin Cooperative Breeding
15.12 Types of Parental Care Provided by Non-Breeding Helpers
15.13 Female Mate Choice and Sexual Selection
Box 15.15 Developmental Stress Hypothesis
Box 15.16 Reactive Oxygen and Antioxidants
Box 15.17 Melanin-Based Plumage and Antioxidant Capacity
15.14 Male Mate Choice
References
16: Avian Reproduction: Timing, Anatomy, and Eggs
16.1 Timing of Reproduction
Box 16.1 Photopic and Non-photopic Regulation of Bird Reproduction
16.2 Reproductive Anatomy of Male Birds
Box 16.2 Testis Asymmetry
16.2.1 Sperm Production and Transport
16.2.2 Characteristics of Sperm
16.2.3 Testosterone and Its Effects
16.3 Ovaries
16.4 Egg Production
Box 16.3 Testosterone Increases Availability of Carotenoids
16.5 Copulation
Box 16.4 Egg Antimicrobial Defenses
16.6 Sperm-Storage Tubules
16.7 Fertilization
16.8 Sex Determination
Box 16.5 Seminal Fluid
16.9 Oviduct Structure and Function
16.10 Shell Membranes and the Eggshell
16.11 Avian Eggs
Box 16.6 Where Do Females Get Calcium for Eggshells?
16.11.1 Egg Coloration
16.11.2 Egg Shape
16.12 Egg-Laying
Box 16.7 Geographic Variation in Egg Size of New World Flycatchers
16.13 Costs of Egg Production
Box 16.8 Decreasing Egg Size with Decreasing Food Availability
Box 16.9 Extreme Intraclutch Egg-size Dimorphism in Eudyptes Penguins
Box 16.10 Dirty Eggs = Safer Eggs
Box 16.11 Stable Isotopes and Egg Nutrients
References
17: Avian Reproduction: Nests and Nest Sites
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Evolution of Nests
Box 17.1 Camouflage and Ground-Nesting Birds
17.3 Nest Functions
17.3.1 Structural Support
Box 17.2 Evolution of Nests and Incubation Behavior
Box 17.3 Evolution of Open-Cup Nests
17.3.2 Protection
17.3.3 Suitable Microclimate
Box 17.4 Open vs. Enclosed Nests
Box 17.5 Underground Nesting by Megapodes
Box 17.6 Diversity and Distribution of Tree-Cavity-Nesting Birds
17.3.4 Phenotypic Signal
17.4 Nest-Site Selection and Predation
Box 17.7 Nest Neighbors that Increase Nesting Success
17.5 Nest Types
Box 17.8 Communal Nests
Box 17.9 Nest Complexity and the Avian Cerebellum
Box 17.10 Cavity-Nest Webs
17.6 Nest Materials
17.7 Nest Construction: Innate or Learned?
Box 17.11 Adherent Nests
17.8 Constructing Nests: Females, Males, or Both?
Box 17.12 Nest ``Decorations´´
Box 17.13 Edible-nest (or White-nest) Swiftlets
Box 17.14 Green Incubation
17.9 Costs of Nest Building
17.10 Nest Reuse by Cavity-Nesting Species
17.11 Nest Parasites
References
18: Avian Reproduction: Clutch Sizes, Incubation, and Hatching
18.1 Evolution of Clutch Sizes
Box 18.1 Avian Survival
Box 18.2 Clutch Sizes of Cavity-Excavating Birds
18.2 Latitudinal Variation in Clutch Sizes
18.3 Variation in Clutch Size Within Species and Populations
18.4 Predation and Clutch Sizes
18.5 Seasonal Variation in Clutch Sizes
18.6 Evolution of Nest Attendance/Incubation
18.7 Incubation
Box 18.3 The Bright Incubate at Night
18.8 Onset of Incubation
18.9 Costs of Incubation
Box 18.4 Prolactin and Parental Care
18.10 Incubation Periods
Box 18.5 Incubation and Microbial Growth on Eggshells
Box 18.6 The Long Incubation Periods of Alcids, Penguins, and Other Oceanic Species of Birds
Box 18.7 Why Do Some Birds Cover Eggs and Nests?
18.11 Development of Avian Embryos
Box 18.8 Hamburger-Hamilton Stages
18.12 Nutrition and Growth of Developing Embryos
Box 18.9 As the Egg Turns
18.13 Metabolic Rates of Avian Embryos
18.14 Hatching
References
19: Avian Reproduction: Post-hatching Parental Care and Brood Parasitism
19.1 Introduction
Box 19.1 Parental Cooperation in Caring for Young
19.2 Post-hatching Parental Care
Box 19.2 Chick Ornamentation
19.3 Begging Behavior of Young Birds
Box 19.3 Dishonest Begging by Nestlings
19.4 Feeding Nestlings
19.5 Fecal Sacs
19.6 Defending Eggs and Young
19.7 Sibling Cooperation and Competition
19.8 Departure from Nests
Box 19.4 Time of Day When Young Fledge
Box 19.5 Effects of Predation Rate, Nest Height, and Latitude on Fledging Age
19.9 Parental Care After Young Leave Nests
19.10 Natal Dispersal
Box 19.6 Moonlight Triggers Dispersal from Parental Territories
19.11 Learning by Young Birds
19.12 Brood Parasitism
19.12.1 Facultative Brood Parasitism
Box 19.7 Kin Selection and Conspecific Brood Parasitism
19.12.2 Facultative (Conspecific) Brood Parasitism: Host Defenses and Parasite Tactics
19.12.3 Obligate Brood Parasitism
Box 19.8 Carry-Over Effects of Brood Parasitism
19.12.4 Obligate Brood Parasitism: Pre-laying Adaptations of Hosts and Parasites
19.12.5 Obligate Brood Parasitism: Laying and Post-laying Adaptations of Hosts and Parasites
19.12.6 Obligate Brood Parasitism: Post-hatching Adaptations of Hosts and Parasites
References
