Immunology for Dentistry

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
List of Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1 Cells and Organs of the Immune System
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Hematopoietic Stem Cells: Origin of Immune Cells
1.3 Cells of the Immune System
1.4 Cells of the Myeloid Lineage: First Line of Defence
1.4.1 Neutrophils
1.4.2 Basophils
1.4.3 Mast Cells
1.4.4 Eosinophils
1.4.5 Mononuclear Phagocytes
1.4.6 Dendritic Cells
1.4.7 Erythrocytes and Platelets
1.4.8 Blood Clotting (Coagulation)
1.5 Cellsof the Lymphoid Lineage: Specific and Long-lasting Immunity
1.5.1 T Cells
1.5.2 Natural Killer Cells
1.5.3 B Cells
1.6 Lymphoid Tissues and Organs
1.6.1 Primary Lymphoid Organs
1.6.2 Secondary Lymphoid Organs
Further Reading
Chapter 2 Oral Immune System
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Mucosa
2.2.1 Microbiome of the Oral Cavity
2.2.2 Mucosal Immunity at the Epithelium
2.2.3 Immune Cells in the Epithelium
2.3 Gingiva
2.3.1 Gingival Crevicular Fluid
2.4 Lamina Propria
2.5 Oral Tolerance
2.6 Submucosa
2.7 Saliva and Salivary Glands
2.7.1 Immunity in Salivary Glands
2.8 Mucosa-associated Lymphoid Tissue
2.8.1 Tonsil Immunity
2.9 Lymph Nodes and the Lymphatic System
2.9.1 Lymph Node Immunity
2.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3 Mechanisms of Immune Responses
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Innate Immune Mechanisms
3.2.1 Preventing Entry Using Anatomical and Physiological Barriers
3.2.2 Non-specific Recognition and Defence against Harmful Agents
3.2.3 Pattern Recognition
3.2.4 Complement Activation
3.2.5 Inflammation
3.2.6 Phagocytosis
3.2.7 Target Cell Lysis
3.3 AdaptiveImmune Mechanisms
3.3.1 Specificity
3.3.2 Division of Labour
3.3.3 Immunological Memory
3.3.4 Diversity
3.3.5 Tolerance
3.4 Key Molecules and Interactions in Adaptive Immune Mechanisms
3.4.1 Antigen
3.4.2 Antibody
3.4.3 Major Histocompatibility Complex Molecules
3.4.4 T-cell Receptor
3.4.5 B-cell Receptor
3.5 Comparison Between Innate and Adaptive Immune Mechanisms
3.6 Immune Deficiencies
Further Reading
Chapter 4 Immune Responses in Wound Healing of Oral Tissues
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Types of Oral Tissues
4.3 Categories of Oral Tissue Injury
4.4 Stages of Wound Healing
4.4.1 Haemostasis Phase
4.4.2 Inflammation Phase
4.4.3 Proliferation Phase
4.4.4 Tissue Remodelling
4.5 Roleof Leucocytes in Wound Healing
4.5.1 Neutrophils
4.5.2 Macrophages
4.6 Spectrum of Wound Healing in the Oral Cavity
Recommended Reading Lists
Chapter 5 Stem Cell Immunology
5.1 Introduction
5.2 General Characteristics of Stem Cells
5.3 Types of Stem Cells
5.4 Immunology of Stem Cells
5.4.1 Immunogenicity and Immunomodulatory Effects of Stem Cells
5.4.2 Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Dendritic Cells/Monocytes/Macrophages
5.4.3 Mesenchymal Stem Cells and T Cells
5.4.4 Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Natural Killer Cells
5.4.5 Mesenchymal Stem Cells and B cells
5.5 Mesenchymal Stem Cell Growth Factors
5.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6 Trace Elements in Oral Immunology
6.1 Minerals and Trace Elements
6.2 Homeostasis of Trace Elements and Immunity
6.3 Effects of Minerals and Trace Elements on Immune Response
6.3.1 Selenium (Se)
6.3.2 Iron (Fe)
6.3.3 Manganese (Mn)
6.3.4 Copper (Cu)
6.3.5 Zinc (Zn)
6.3.6 Fluoride (F)
6.4 Trace Elements and Immunity of the Oral Cavity
6.4.1 Trace Elements in Periodontal Disease
6.4.2 Trace Elements in Caries
6.4.3 Trace Elements in Oral Malignancy
6.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7 Oral Microbiome and Oral Cancer
7.1 Definition of the Oral Microbiome
7.2 Biological Evolution of the Oral Microbiome
7.3 Acquiring the Oral Microbiome
7.4 Oral Biofilm or Dental Plaque
7.4.1 Initiation Phase of Oral Biofilm Formation
7.4.2 Progression Phase of Oral Biofilm Formation
7.4.3 Establishment Phase of Oral Biofilm Formation
7.4.4 Microbial Diversity of Oral Biofilms
7.5 Oral Cancer
7.5.1 Oral Carcinogenes is in Brief
7.5.2 Global Burden of Oral Cancer
7.6 Oral Microbiome as a Biomarker in Oral Cancer
7.7 Aetiological Factors of Oral Cancer
7.7.1 Tobacco smoking
7.7.2 Smokeless Tobacco
7.7.3 Areca Nut and Areca Nut-based Products
7.7.4 Slaked Lime
7.7.5 Alcohol Consumption
7.7.6 Human Papilloma Virus
7.8 Predisposing Factors for Oral Cancer
7.8.1 Genetic Susceptibility
7.8.2 Dietary Micronutrient Deficiencies
7.8.3 Immunosuppression
7.8.4 Age
7.8.5 Socioeconomic Factors
7.9 RiskFactors for Oral Cancer
7.9.1 Exposure to Excessive Solar Radiation and UV Light
7.9.2 Sulfur Dioxide, Pesticides, Aerosols from Strong Inorganic Acids
7.9.3 Indoor Air Pollution
7.9.4 Infection, Inflammation and Periodontitis
7.10 Mechanism of Carcinogenes is of Known Oral Carcinogens
7.10.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
7.10.2 Nicotine-derived Nitrosamine Ketone (NNK) and N′-nitrosonornicotine (NNN)
7.10.3 Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species
7.10.4 Acetaldehyde
7.10.5 HPV Oncoproteins
7.11 Oral Bacteria and Immunological Tolerance
7.12 Oral Bacterial Synergy and Dysbiosis in Inflammatory Diseases
7.13 Oral Bacterial Synergy and Dysbiosis in Oral Cancer
7.14 Role of Bacteria in Oral Carcinogenesis
7.14.1 Direct Influence of Bacteria in Oral Carcinogenesis
7.14.2 Indirect Influence of Bacteria in Oral Carcinogenesis
7.15 Role of Viruses in Oral Carcinogenesis
7.15.1 Human Herpes Viruses Associated with Oral Cancer
7.15.2 Cytomegalovirus
7.16 Role of Fungi in Oral Cancer
7.16.1 Oral Mycobiome in Health and Disease
7.17 Association and Causation
7.18 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8 Oral Microbiome and Periodontitis
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Dental Biofilm
8.2.1 Structure and Function of the Dental Biofilm
8.2.2 Changes in Dental Biofilm from Health to Disease
8.3 Microbial Diagnostic Methods
8.3.1 Human Microbiome Project
8.4 Microbes in Health and Periodontitis
8.4.1 Factors Affecting Microbial Composition
8.5 Microbial Interaction with the Host
8.6 Effect of Periodontal Therapy on the Microbiota
8.6.1 Antiseptics
8.6.2 Antibiotics
8.6.4 Photodynamic Therapy
8.6.5 Other Therapies
8.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9 Periodontitis and Systemic Diseases
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Prevalence of Periodontitis
9.3 Pathogenesis of Periodontitis
9.4 Systemic Spread of Bacteria from the Inflamed Periodontium
9.5 Systemic Spread of Inflammatory Mediators
9.6 Periodontitis and Diabetes
9.6.1 Diabetes – A Risk Factor for Periodontitis
9.6.2 Effects on Oral Microbiota in Diabetes With or Without Periodontitis
9.6.3 Common Inflammatory Responses in Diabetes and Periodontitis
9.6.4 Cross-talk of Pathogenesis Between Diabetes and Periodontitis
9.6.5 The Effect of Therapy on Bidirectional Disease
9.7 Periodontitis and Cardiovascular Disease
9.7.1 Epidemiological Association Between Periodontitis and CVD
9.7.2 Potential Causal Link Between Periodontitis and CVD
9.7.3 Impact of Periodontal Therapy on CVD
9.7.4 Summary of Periodontitis and CVD
9.8 Periodontitis and Obesity
9.8.1 Common Prevalence of Obesity and Periodontitis
9.8.2 Possible Mechanisms Linking Obesity and Periodontitis
9.8.3 Effect of Obesity on Periodontal Therapy
9.9 Periodontitis and Rheumatoid Arthritis
9.9.1 Epidemiological Evidence on the Association Between RA and PD
9.9.2 Plausible Causal Links Between RA and PD
9.9.3 Common Tissue Destruction Pathway in RA and PD
9.9.4 The Effect of Periodontal Therapy on RA
9.9.5 Summary of Periodontitis and RA
9.10 Clinical Significance of the Periodontal–Systemic Disease Link
References
Chapter 10 Immunology of Tooth Movement and Root Resorption in Orthodontics
10.1 Orthodontic Tooth Movement: Definition and Theories
10.1.1 Pressure–Tension Theory
10.1.2 Biological Electric Theory
10.1.3 Biomechanical Theory
10.1.4 Biphasic Theory
10.2 Principal Tissues of Orthodontic Tooth Movement
10.2.1 Periodontal Ligament and Cells Within
10.2.2 Alveolar Bone
10.3 Chemical Mediators in Tooth Movement
10.3.1 Proinflammatory Cytokines
10.3.2 Chemokines
10.3.3 Anti-inflammatory Cytokines
10.3.4 Prostaglandins
10.3.5 Growth Factors
10.3.6 Neurotransmitters
10.3.7 Osteopontin
10.4 Orthodontic Pain Management and Cytokine Expression
10.5 Immune Response in Osteoperforations During Accelerated Orthodontic Movement
10.6 Root Resorption in Orthodontics
10.6.1 Mechanism of Root Resorption
10.6.2 Cellular Response in the Initiation of Root Resorption
10.6.3 Metabolic Response in Orthodontically Induced Root Resorption
10.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11 Sex Hormone Modulation in Periodontal Inflammation and Healing
11.1 Periodontal Disease and Its Inflammatory Nature
11.2 Periodontitis
11.3 Periodontal Treatment and Modulators of Periodontal Healing
11.4 Sex Steroid Hormones in Periodontal Tissues
11.5 Effects of Female Sex Steroids on Periodontal Tissues
11.6 Effects of Male Sex Steroids on Periodontal Tissues
11.7 Effects of Puberty on Periodontal Tissues
11.8 Effects of Menstrual Cycle on Periodontal Tissues
11.9 Effects of Pregnancy on Periodontal Tissues and Clinical Manifestations
11.10 Effects of Hormonal Contraceptives on Periodontal Tissues and Clinical Manifestations
11.11 Effects of Menopause on Periodontal Tissues and Clinical Manifestations
11.12 Sex Steroid Receptor Expression and Modulatory Effects in Periodontal Tissues
11.13 Mechanisms of Action of Sex Steroid Hormones in Periodontal Tissues
11.13.1 Cellular Proliferation
11.13.2 Folate Metabolism
11.13.3 Tissue Vasculature
11.13.4 Immune Reactivity
11.13.5 Inflammatory Mediators
11.13.6 Change in Microbial Ecology
11.14 Altered Metabolism of Sex Steroids
11.15 Clinical Applications
11.16 Conclusion
Further Reading
Chapter 12 Dental Alloy-associated Innate Immune Response
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Metals and Their Application in Dental Alloys
12.3 Metal Ion Release from Dental Alloys
12.4 Local and Systemic Adverse Reactivity to Metal Alloys
12.4.1 Local Adverse Reactions (Table 12.3)
12.4.2 Systemic Adverse Reactions (Figure 12.2)
12.5 Immunological Aspects of Oral Metal Exposure
12.5.1 Oral Immune Responses to Metals
12.5.2 Innate Immune Response to Metals
12.5.3 Adaptive Immune Response to Metals
12.6 Sensitising Capacity of Metals
12.6.1 Allergenicity
12.6.2 In vivo Allergenicity Testing
12.6.3 Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship (QSAR)
12.6.4 Cell-based Allergenicity Testing
References
Chaper 13 Inflammation and Immune Response in Arthrogenous Temporomandibular Disorders
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Anatomy of the Temporomandibular Joint
13.3 Temporomandibular Disorders
13.4 Female Predilection in Temporomandibular Disorders: An Immunological Perspective
13.5 Inflammation in Arthrogenous Temporomandibular Disorders
13.6 Cytokines in Temporomandibular Disorders
13.6.1 Interleukin-1
13.6.2 Tumour Necrosis Factor Alpha
13.6.3 Interleukin-6
13.6.4 Interleukin-8
13.7 Pain and Inflammation in the Temporomandibular Joint
13.8 Other Inflammation-related Biomarkers in Temporomandibular Disorders
13.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14 Prospects of Passive Immunotherapy to Treat Pulpal Inflammation
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Current Status of Immunotherapy in Periodontitis
14.3 Immunotherapies for Dental Caries
14.4 Inflammatory Responses in Dental Pulp
14.5 Cytokines in Pulpal Inflammation
14.6 Antimicrobial Peptides in Pulpal Defence
14.7 Potential for Immunotherapy to Treat Pulpal Inflammation
14.8 Immunoregulation/Immunomodulation for Dental Pulp Therapy
14.8.1 Molecular Therapy Candidates
14.8.2 Cell Therapy Involving Mesenchymal Stem Cells
14.8.3 Anticytokine and Antibody Molecules
14.8.4 Modified Dental Biomaterials for Immunomodulation
14.8.5 Epigenetic Regulating Molecules
14.8.6 MicroRNA Technologies
14.8.7 Miscellaneous Therapies with Potential for Pulpal Regeneration
14.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15 Techniques in Immunology
15.1 Principles of Immunoassays
15.1.1 Interaction between Antigen and Antibody
15.1.2 Direct and Indirect Immunoassays
15.1.3 Samples Suitable for Immunoassays
15.1.4 Antibodies for Immunoassays
15.1.5 Use of Polyclonal or Monoclonal Antibodies
15.1.6 Specificity and Sensitivity of Ag–Ab Binding
15.1.7 Reporter (Visualisation Marker) and Linker
15.1.8 Different Types of Immunoassays and Their Applications
15.2 Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay
15.2.1 Basic Concept and Steps
15.2.2 Types of ELISA
15.2.3 General Steps in Direct or Indirect ELISA
15.2.4 Variations and Advances in ELISA
15.2.5 Analysis of Results of ELISA
15.3 Immunohisto-(cyto-)-chemical Staining
15.3.1 Basic Concept of IHC/ICC
15.3.2 Basic Requirements for IHC/ICC Staining
15.3.3 Basic Steps in ICC/IHC
15.3.4 Troubleshooting in IHC/ICC
15.3.5 Reducing High Background in IHC/ICC Staining
15.3.6 Increasing Staining Intensity
15.4 Western Blotting
15.4.1 Basic Concept
15.4.2 Major Steps in Western Blotting
15.4.3 Basic Requirements for Western Blotting
15.4.4 Transferring (Blotting) Proteins from Gel to Membrane (Figure 15.11)
15.4.5 Buffers for Western Blotting
15.4.6 Protocol for Immunostaining of Proteins on Membranes
15.4.7 Trouble Shooting in Immunoblotting
15.5 Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis
15.5.1 Principles of PAGE
15.5.2 Determination of Pore Size for Polyacrylamide Gel
15.5.3 Preparing Polyacrylamide Gel: Separation of the Proteins
15.5.4 Detection of the Separated Proteins in the Gel
15.5.5 Troubleshooting in Electrophoresis
15.6 Flow Cytometry
15.6.1 Basic Concept of Flow Cytometry and Fluorescence-activated Cell Sorting
15.6.2 The Flow Cytometer
15.6.3 Selection of Fluorescence and Fluorophore
15.6.4 Basic Steps in Flow Cytometry or FACS Analysis
15.6.5 Data Analysis for Flow Cytometry or FACS
15.6.6 Applications of Flow Cytometry
Chapter 16 Control Selection and Statistical Analyses in Immunological Research
16.1 Control Selection
16.1.1 Example of a Simple Immunohistochemical-based Research Design
16.1.2 Possible Results and Their Interpretation
16.1.3 Types and Number of Control Samples
16.2 Statistical Analyses in Immunological Research
16.2.1 Considerations for Choosing the Right Statistical Test
16.2.2 Assumptions for Statistical Tests
16.2.3 Variables: The Core of Statistical Testing
16.2.4 Understanding the Relationship between Variables and Data
16.2.5 Choosing a Parametric Test
16.2.6 Choosing a Non-parametric Test
16.2.7 Interpretation of Statistical Tests
16.2.8 Technical Replicates and Biological Replicates
16.2.9 Repeating Experiments
Further Reading
Index
EULA