The "Hydrogen Economy" is very broad subject ranging from the potential use of hydrogen for domestic use to the mass production of hydrogen replacing coal, natural gas (LNG) and conventional transport fuels. For any given project, there are many alternatives to consider for each stage of making, storing and transporting hydrogen. The book aims to assist proponents, and financiers of hydrogen projects to identify the optimum alternatives and identify hurdles and approaches to overcome them. This book attempts to describe an optimum approach to implement and its cost. It sets out to identify hurdles to implementation which may not be apparent to those entering the field for the first time. The book covers the various means and costs of production from fossil fuels (with carbon capture) – blue hydrogen – electrolysis – green hydrogen – or biomass. The book covers hydrogen storage as liquid or compressed gas and transport, through pipelines as liquid or by an intermediary fluid such as ammonia or a hydrocarbon. The book also discusses the production and costs of hydrogen delivery at the user end of a logistics chain. It also compares the relative energy value of energy delivered hydrogen versus the current suite of conventional fuels.
Author(s): Duncan Seddon
Publisher: World Scientific Publishing
Year: 2022
Language: English
Pages: 310
City: Singapore
CONTENTS
Disclaimer
Introduction, Preamble, Executive Summary
Summary Observations
Production
Blue hydrogen
Green hydrogen
Storage and transport
Competitive position
Chapter 1 The Market for Hydrogen
The Use of Hydrogen in the Process Industries
Safety
Oil Refineries
Naphtha Isomerization
Naphtha and Distillate Hydro-Treating
Hydro-Cracking
The Naphtha Reformer
The Refinery Hydrogen Market
Petrochemicals
Naphtha Hydro-Treating
Hydrogen Use in Down-Stream Operations
Naphtha Reforming and Aromatics
Benzene
Toluene
Xylenes
Oxo-alcohols
The Use of Hydrogen in the Chemicals Industry
Methanol (CH3OH)
Methanol and the hydrogen economy
Ammonia
Ammonia manufacture
Importance of ammonia in the hydrogen economy
The Use of Hydrogen in Reducing Metal Ores
Direct Reduction of Iron Ore
Shaft reduction process
Iron ore fines reduction process
Role of DRI in the hydrogen economy
Observations
Chapter 2 Methods of Hydrogen Production
The Production of Hydrogen from Coal
Gasification
Solid gas reactions
Gas phase reactions
Process optimisation
Pyrolysis
Gasifier Types
Moving bed gasifier
Fluid-bed gasifier
Entrained-bed gasifiers
Texaco slurry entrained-bed gasifier (GE gasifier)
Comparative performance of gasifiers
The Production of Hydrogen from Natural Gas
Steam Reforming
Maximising Hydrogen Yield
Partial Oxidation
Auto-Thermal Reforming
The Production of Pure Hydrogen
The WGS Process
Water-gas
Water-gas-shift
Hydrogen Purification
Methanation
Separation
Pressure-swing adsorption (PSA)
Membrane separation systems
Cryogenic separation
Hydrogen Production from the Hydrocarbon Process Industry
Hydrogen Yield from Steam Cracking
Hydrogen from Propane and Butane De-Hydrogenation Processes
Hydrogen production
Carbon Black
Hydrogen Production from the Chlor-Alkali Industry
Hydrogen Production
Hydrogen in Natural Gas
Observations
Chapter 3 The Cost of Hydrogen Production From Fossil Fuels
Hydrogen Production from Natural Gas
The Concept of a Central Production Facility
Cost of Hydrogen Production from a Central Facility from Natural Gas
By-Product Credits
Gas Price
Capital Cost
Greenhouse Emissions from Steam Methane Reforming (SMR)
Impact of Scale of Operation
Hydrogen from Coal
Cost of Hydrogen Production from Coal
Sensitivity to Coal Price
Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Greenhouse Emissions in the Production of Hydrogen
Carbon dioxide capture from dilute, impure streams
Carbon dioxide capture from concentrated, relatively pure streams
Membrane Systems
Adsorption Systems
Absorption Systems
Cryogenic Processes
Cost of carbon dioxide removal from hydrogen process streams
Carbon Dioxide Geo-Sequestration — Carbon Capture and Storage
Greenfield geo-sequestration
Development Status
Great plains synfuels — Dakota gasification company (North Dakota, USA)
Norwegian CCS — Sleipner gas field CCS and Snohvit CCS
Gorgon gas project (Barrow Island, Western Australia)
Case Study
Waste-heat recovery
Fan (compressor)
Flue-gas desulphurisation
MEA carbon dioxide extraction
Compression, pipeline and CCS wells
Discussion
Chapter 4 The Production of Hydrogen From Renewable Sources
The Production of Hydrogen by Electrolysis
Electrolysis
Overview of Cell Operation
Water
The cathode
The anode
The DC supply
Impact of temperature on required EMF
Impact of pressure on required EMF
Membrane Compression of Hydrogen
High-Temperature Electrolysis
Comparison of Performance of Different Cells
Other Approaches
Impact of Solar Radiation Variation on Electrolysis
Economics of Hydrogen Production by Electrolysis
Production costs by electrolysis
Capital costs
Power costs
Estimate of hydrogen production costs by PEM electrolysis cell
Photochemical Water Splitting
Hydrogen Production from Biomass
Biomass Logistics
Biomass Quality
Process Flow Sheet for Biomass Gasification
Economics of Biomass to Hydrogen
Review
Small-Scale Hydrogen Production
Larger Scale Hydrogen Production
Hydrogen from Coal and Biomass
Chapter 5 Hydrogen Storage and Transport
Hydrogen Storage in Cylinders
Transport of Hydrogen as Liquid
Hydrogen Liquefaction
Ortho and para hydrogen
Storage of Liquid Hydrogen
Storage in LNG-type tanks
Storage in Salt Caverns
Storage as Hydrides
Hydrogen Compression
Hydrogen Transport by Pipelines
Use of Existing Natural Gas Pipelines
Heating value
Wobbe index
Methane number
Pipeline Costs
Cost of Hydrogen Storage and Transport
Cost of Hydrogen Storage
Compressed gas
Liquid hydrogen
Underground caverns
Summary
The Cost of Hydrogen Transport
Cost of transporting compressed hydrogen by truck
Cost of transporting liquid hydrogen by truck
Cost of transporting liquid hydrogen by barge
Hydrogen transport by pipeline
Summary
Chapter 6 The Mass Shipping of Hydr
Cost of Ships and Shipping
The Shipping Fleet
Contract shipping costs
Build-up of shipping costs
Cost of Shipping Liquid Hydrogen
Hydrogen liquefaction
Shipping liquid hydrogen
Regasification of Liquid Hydrogen
Adding value in regasification facilities
Regasification cost
Summary
Delivering Hydrogen as Compressed Gas
Transport of Hydrogen as an Intermediate
Transport of Hydrogen as a Naphthene (The Spera Process)
Process thermodynamics
Process flow for toluene to MCH
Process flow for MCH to toluene
Process Economics
Shipping Toluene and MCH
Summary
Transport of Hydrogen as Ammonia
Economics of Ammonia Synthesis
Economics of ammonia production by steam methane reforming/gasification
Economics of ammonia production by water electrolysis
Ammonia Shipping Cost
The Cracking of Ammonia to Nitrogen and Hydrogen
Summary
Chapter 7 Competitive Position of Hydrogen Versus Fossil Fuels
Fuel Cells
Low to Moderate Temperature Fuel Cells (ambient to 200°C)
Alkaline fuel cells
Proton exchange membrane fuel cells
Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC)
High Temperature Fuel Cells (650°C–1000°C)
Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC)
Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC)
Fuel Cell Applications
Current Use of Fossil Fuels in Fuel Cells
Manufactures of fuel cell vehicles
Competition for Stationary Applications
Competition for Vehicle Applications
Competitive Position Hydrogen and Fossil Fuels in Vehicles
Taxes and Local Premiums
Relative Engine Efficiencies
The Price of Conventional Fossil Fuels
Chapter 8 Case Studies for the Hydrogen Economy
Case Study 1: Hydrogen Production and Use in a Domestic Setting
Case Study 2: Hydrogen from Large-Scale Solar Power
Option 1: Hydrogen Delivery by Pipeline
Option 2: Hydrogen Delivered by Existing Pipeline
Option 3: Delivery of Power from Remote Solar Farm by Transmission Line to Central Hydrogen Production Facility
Comparison to Conventional Fuels
Case Study 3: Remotely Produced Hydrogen Shipped to North East Asia
Option 1: Shipping Hydrogen as Liquid and Regasification
Option 2: Shipping Hydrogen as LNG
Option 3: Transport as Ammonia to Japan
Summary
Case Study 4: Hydrogen from Victorian Ligniteto North East Asia
Appendices
A1. Properties of Hydrogen
A2: Comparison of Hydrogen to Other Fuels
A3: Conversion Factors
A4: Cost Indices
A5: Location Factors
A6: Relation of Delivered Equipment to Final Capital Cost
A7: Methodology for Economic Analysis
Capital Costs (C)
Capital Recovery Factors
Fixed Operating Costs (O)
Working capital
Labour, maintenance and administrative costs
Catalysts and chemicals
Other operating costs
A8: Indexed Fuel and Construction Costs
A9: Accuracy of Cost Estimates
Concept or Scoping Study
Feasibility Study
Bankable Feasibility Study
Front-End Engineering and Design
A10: Abbreviations
Index
