Hybrid Polymeric Nanocomposites from Agricultural Waste

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgement
Editor Biography
Contributors
Section I: Fundamentals
1. Emerging Materials in Polymer Reinforcement
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Fibre-Reinforced Polymers
1.3 Particle-Reinforced Polymers
1.4 Filler-Reinforced Polymers
1.5 Lightweight Materials, Properties, and Applications
1.6 Polymeric Nanocomposite
1.7 Particulate Reinforcements
1.8 Rule of Mixture
1.9 Needs of Hybridisation of Reinforcing Particles
1.10 Hybrid Effect of Reinforcement in Composite
1.11 Current State of Hybrid Particle Composites
1.12 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hybrid Composite
1.12.1 Advantages of Hybrid Composites
1.12.2 Disadvantages of Hybrid Composites
1.13 Prior Studies in Hybridisation of Materials
1.14 Conclusions/Summary
References
2. An Overview of the Sources, Structure, Applications, and Biodegradability of Agricultural Wastes
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Bioproducts
2.3 Agricultural Wastes, Burnings, and Their Challenges
2.3.1 Agricultural Wastes
2.3.2 Burning and Their Challenges
2.4 Benefits of Moringa oleifera Tree: Pods as Sources of Reinforcing Nanoparticles
2.4.1 Moringa oleifera Parts
2.4.2 Synthesis of Nanoparticles (NPs) from Moringa oleifera
2.5 Seed Structure and Applications of Daniella oliveri (Rolfe) Tree
2.5.1 Importance of Daniella oliveri
2.5.2 Seed Structure of Daniella oliveri
2.5.3 Present and Future Applications of Bioproducts from the Daniella oliveri Seed
2.6 Structure and Applications of Banana Stems
2.6.1 Banana Stems
2.6.2 Chemical, Physical, and Mechanical Properties of Banana Stems
2.6.3 Applications of Banana Stems
2.6.4 Economic Significance of Banana Stem Waste
2.7 Importance and Challenges of Eggshells
2.7.1 The Importance of Eggshells in Agriculture
2.7.2 Challenges of Eggshells
2.8 Agricultural Wastes as Colour Adsorbing and Filtering Materials
2.8.1 Conventional Methods of Absorbing Colour
2.8.2 Agricultural Wastes as Adsorbents
2.8.2.1 Physical Activation
2.8.2.2 Chemical Activation
2.9 Techniques and Impacts of Agricultural Waste-Derived Energy
2.9.1 Biochemical Conversion Techniques
2.9.1.1 Anaerobic Digestion
2.9.1.2 Fermentation
2.9.1.3 Transesterification
2.9.2 Thermochemical Conversion Techniques
2.9.2.1 Gasification
2.9.2.2 Combustion
2.9.2.3 Pyrolysis
2.9.2.4 Liquefaction
2.10 Sustainability and Evaluation of Energy Generated from Agricultural Wastes
2.10.1 Economic Considerations
2.10.2 Environmental Considerations
2.10.3 Social Considerations
2.11 Cost of Energy Generated from Wastes Compared with Energies from Other Sources
2.12 Conclusions
Acknowledgement
References
3. Nanocomposites Based on Nanoparticles from Agricultural Wastes
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Categories of Agricultural Wastes
3.2.1 Methods of Nanoparticle Synthesis from Agricultural Wastes
3.2.2 Composites
3.2.3 Formulation of a Nanocomposite
3.3 Processing of Polymer Nanocomposites
3.3.1 In-Situ Polymerisation
3.3.1.1 Solution Blending
3.3.1.2 Melt Blending
3.3.2 Direct Mixing
3.3.3 Sol-Gel Method
3.3.4 Production of Polymer Nanocomposites
3.3.5 Strategies to Achieve Improved Dispersion Quality (Chemical and Physical Modification)
3.4 Properties and Applications of Agricultural Waste Particle-Reinforced Polymers
3.4.1 Advantages of Polymer Nanocomposites
3.4.2 Disadvantages of Polymer Nanocomposites
3.4.3 Characterisation of Polymer Nanocomposites
3.4.4 Structure of Polymer Nanocomposites
3.4.5 Properties of Polymer Nanocomposites
3.4.5.1 Mechanical Properties
3.4.5.2 Barrier Properties
3.4.5.3 Thermal Properties
3.4.5.4 Microstructural Properties
3.4.5.5 Dimensional Stability
3.4.6 Application of Polymer Nanocomposites
3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Particulate Nanocomposites Based on Agricultural Wastes
3.5.1 Advantages
3.5.2 Disadvantages
3.6 Cost Comparison Between Conventional and Agricultural Particle Polymeric Nanocomposites
3.7 Future Directions of Particulate Polymer Nanocomposites
3.8 Conclusion
References
4. Organic and Inorganic Nanoparticles from Agricultural Waste
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Methods of Synthesis
4.2.1 Top-Down Approach
4.2.1.1 Mechanical Milling
4.2.1.2 Combustion
4.2.1.3 Ionotropic Gelation
4.2.1.4 Sonochemical
4.2.2 Bottom-Up Approach
4.2.2.1 Wet Chemical/Precipitation
4.2.2.2 Sol-Gel
4.2.2.2.1 Metallothermic Reduction
4.2.2.3 Hydrothermal
4.3 Characterisation and Size Determination
4.4 Inorganic Nanoparticles: Structures, Properties, and Applications
4.5 Organic Nanoparticles: Structures, Properties, and Applications
4.6 Conclusions
References
5. Computational Approaches to Polymeric Nanocomposites
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Analytical Methods
5.2.1 Mechanical Properties
5.2.1.1 Rule of Mixtures
5.2.1.2 Halpin-Tsai Model
5.2.1.3 Mori-Tanaka Model
5.2.2 Thermal Properties
5.2.2.1 Micromechanical Approach
5.2.2.2 Effective Medium Approach
5.3 Numerical Methods
5.3.1 Molecular Scale Methods
5.3.1.1 Molecular Dynamics
5.3.1.1.1 Time Integration
5.3.1.2 Monte Carlo
5.3.2 Microscale Methods
5.3.2.1 Lattice Boltzmann Method
5.3.2.2 Brownian Dynamics
5.3.2.3 Dissipative Particle Dynamics
5.3.3 Mesoscale and Macroscopic Methods
5.3.3.1 Micromechanics Approach
5.3.3.2 Equivalent-Continuum Approach
5.3.3.3 Finite Element Method
5.3.4 Multiscale Modelling
5.4 Computational Approach to PNC Property Predictions
5.4.1 Stiffness and Strength
5.4.2 Stress Transfer
5.4.3 Fatigue and Fracture
5.4.4 Creep
5.5 Challenges and Prospects
5.6 Concluding Remarks
Nomenclature
References
Section II: Agricultural Waste-Based Polyethylene-Based Nanocomposites
6. Agricultural Waste Reinforced Polyethylene-Based Hybrid Nanocomposites: Design Formulations and Mechanical Properties
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Polyethylene as a Thermoplastic Material
6.3 Recycling of Thermoplastics Waste
6.4 Formulation, Processing, and Characterisation of Polyethylene Matrix Composites
6.5 Viability of Using Agricultural Waste Particles to Develop Polyethylene Matrix Composites
6.6 State-of-the-Art of Research on Polyethylene Matrix Composites: Processing Methods, Properties Enhancement, and Applications
6.7 Materials Preparation and Production of Polyethylene Composites
6.8 Characterisation of Polyethylene Matrix Composites
6.9 Microstructural Properties of Polyethylene Composite
6.10 Water Absorption of Polyethylene Matrix Composites
6.11 Tensile Strength of Polyethylene Matrix Composites
6.12 Modulus of Elasticity of Polyethylene Matrix Composites
6.13 Hardness of Polyethylene Matrix Composites
6.14 Impact Energy of Polyethylene Matrix Composites
6.15 Conclusion/Summary
References
7. Delonix regia Pod Particles Reinforced Nanocomposites: Properties Comparison between Recycled and Virgin Low-Density Polyethylene
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Green Synthesis and Characterisation
7.2.1 Preparation and Characterisation of Delonix regia Pod Nanoparticles
7.2.2 Fabrications of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene
7.2.3 Structural Characterisations of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene
7.2.3.1 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis
7.2.3.2 Scanning Electron Microscopic Characterisation of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene
7.2.4 Mechanical Investigation of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene
7.2.4.1 Tensile Test
7.2.4.2 Flexural Test
7.2.4.3 Hardness Test
7.2.4.4 Impact Energy
7.3 Chemistry and Structures
7.3.1 X-Ray Diffraction Profiles of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene
7.3.2 Microstructural Properties of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene
7.3.2.1 Transmission Electron Microscopic Images and Sizes of Reinforcing Particles
7.3.2.2 Scanning Electron Micrograph of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene Composites
7.4 Mechanical Properties of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene
7.4.1 Tensile Properties of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene
7.4.2 Flexural Properties of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene Composites
7.4.3 Hardness Values of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene
7.4.4 Impact Energy of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene
7.5 Conclusions and Summary
Acknowledgement
References
Section III: Agricultural and Domestic Waste-Based Nanocomposites of Other Polymers
8. Particulate-Reinforced Polylactic Composites: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Strengthening of Polylactic Acids Using Agricultural Waste Nanoparticles
8.2.1 Polylactic Acid
8.2.1.1 Structure of Polylactic Acid
8.2.1.2 Agricultural Waste as Reinforcement
8.2.2 Cellulose
8.2.3 Lignin
8.2.4 Hemicellulose
8.2.5 Extractives
8.3 Properties of Polylactic Acid
8.3.1 Mechanical Properties
8.3.1.1 Stiffness (Elastic Modulus)
8.3.1.2 Tensile Strength
8.3.2 Thermal Stability
8.4 Applications of Polylactic Acid
8.4.1 Food Packaging Applications
8.4.2 Application in Automotive Industry
8.4.3 Agricultural Mulching Materials
8.5 Conclusions and Summary
References
9. Parquetina nigrescens: Date Seed Pod Particle Polymethylmethacrylate Nanocomposites for Biomedical Applications
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and Its Properties
9.3 Synthetic Additives to Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and Properties
9.4 Potentials of Parquetina nigrescens Pods as Sources of Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications
9.4.1 Parquetina nigrescens
9.4.2 Properties and Uses of Parquetina nigrescens
9.4.3 Synthesis, Chemistry, and Toxicity of Parquetina nigrescens Pod Nanoparticle
9.4.4 Optical Properties of Parquetina nigrescens Pod Nanoparticles
9.4.4.1 Transmittance
9.4.4.2 Absorbance and Absorbance Coefficient
9.4.4.3 Extinction Coefficient
9.4.4.4 Analysis of Parquetina Nigrescens Pod Nanoparticle
9.5 Date Seed Nanoparticles: Properties and Applications
9.5.1 Date Seed
9.5.2 Compositions and Benefits of Date Seeds
9.5.3 Cultivation of Date Palm
9.5.4 Harvesting Stage and Varieties of Date Fruits
9.5.5 Properties and Uses of Date Fruits
9.5.6 UV-Visible Optical Properties of Date Seed Nanoparticles
9.5.7 Chemical Compositions and Toxicity of Date Seed Nanoparticles
9.6 Synthesis, Structures, Properties, and Applications of Particulate-Reinforced Polymethylmethacrylate Nanocomposites
References
Section IV: Industrial Applications
10. Particulate Hybrid Epoxy Nanocomposite: Structures, Tensile Properties, Regression Analysis, and Applications
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Manufacturing of Hybrid Particle-Reinforced Epoxy
10.2.1 Hybrid Reinforcements
10.2.2 Synthesis of Aluminium Nanoparticles
10.2.3 Synthesis of Coconut Shell Nanoparticles
10.2.4 Development of Coconut Shell Aluminium Reinforced Epoxy Nanocomposites
10.3 Characterisation of Hybrid Particle-Reinforced Epoxy
10.3.1 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Examination
10.3.2 Optical Microscopic Analysis
10.3.3 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Examination
10.3.4 Tensile Properties Determination
10.3.5 Density Measurement
10.3.6 Thermal Property Determination
10.4 Properties of Hybrid Particle-Reinforced Epoxy
10.4.1 X-Ray Diffractometric Properties
10.4.2 Microstructural Properties of Hybrid Particle-Reinforced Epoxy
10.4.3 Tensile Properties of Hybrid Particle-Reinforced Epoxy Nanocomposites
10.4.4 Modelling of Tensile Strength of Hybrid Particle-Reinforced Epoxy Nanocomposites
10.4.5 Density and Dynamic Thermal Properties of Hybrid Particle-Reinforced Epoxy
10.5 Future Direction of 4% aluminium 6% uncarbonised coconut shell particle reinforced epoxy nanocomposites
10.6 Conclusions and Summary
References
11. Parquetina nigrescens-Reinforced Polylactic Acid (PLA) Composites for Engineering Applications
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Biopolymers/Bioplastics: Production, Markets, Benefits, and Applications
11.3 Polylactic Acids: Production, Properties, Advantages, and Challenges
11.4 Life Cycle of PLA
11.5 Agricultural Waste Management and Utilisation for Green Composites Development
11.6 Modifications of Polylactic Acids (PLA) Using Agricultural Waste Fibres/Nanoparticles
11.6.1 Production of PLA-Based Composites
11.6.2 Typical Productions of Parquetina nigrescens Fibre-Reinforced Polylactic Acid Composites
11.6.3 Characterisations of Parquetina nigrescens Fibres and PLA Composites
11.6.3.1 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) Analysis
11.6.3.2 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis
11.6.3.3 Tensile Tests
11.6.3.4 Impact Energy Determination
11.7 Structural Properties of Parquetina nigrescens-Reinforced Polylactic Acid Composites
11.7.1 Transmission Electron Microscopic Image of Parquetina nigrescens Fibres
11.7.2 X-Ray Diffractograms of the Parquetina nigrescens-Reinforced Polylactic Acid Composites
11.8 Mechanical Properties of PLA-Based Green Composites
11.8.1 Tensile and Compressive Strength of the PLA-Based Composites
11.8.2 Impact, Flexural, and Shear Strength of the PLA-Based Composites
11.9 Crystallinity and Thermal Characteristics of PLA and PLA-Based Composites
11.10 Biodegradability of Polylactic-Based Composites
11.11 Conclusions
References
12. Polymeric Nanocomposites for Artificial Implants
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Requirements of Materials for Artificial Bone Implants
12.2.1 Structural Properties of Materials for Artificial Bone Implants
12.2.2 Mechanical Properties of Materials for Artificial Bone Implants
12.2.3 Wear Resistance Properties of Materials for Artificial Bone Implants
12.2.4 Biocompatibility and Cytotoxicity of Materials for Artificial Bone Implants
12.3 Polymethylmethacrylate-Based Composites Implants
12.3.1 Mechanical Properties of Polymethylmethacrylate
12.3.2 Composition of Polymethylmethacrylate
12.3.3 Polymethylmethacrylate Storage
12.3.4 Viscosity of Polymethylmethacrylate
12.3.5 Deformation of Polymethylmethacrylate
12.3.6 Thermal Properties of Polymethylmethacrylate
12.3.7 Use of Polymethylmethacrylate Composites
12.4 Polylactic Acid-Based Composites for Bone Implants
12.4.1 Polylactide-Based Composites
12.4.2 Polylactic Acid-Based Composite Fabrication Techniques
12.4.3 Mechanical Properties of Polylactic Acid-Based Composite
12.4.4 Thermal Properties of Polylactic Acid-Based Composite
12.4.5 Rheological Properties of Polylactic Acid-Based Composite
12.5 Ultrahigh Molecular Weight-Based Composites for Bone Implants
12.5.1 Ultrahigh Molecular Weight Polyethylene/Hydroxyapatite Composites
12.5.2 Graphene Derivative-Reinforced Ultrahigh Molecular Weight Polyethylene Composites
12.5.3 Processing of Ultrahigh Molecular Weight Polyethylene/Hydroxyapatite Composites
12.5.4 Mechanical Properties of Ultrahigh Molecular Weight Polyethylene Composites
12.5.5 Biocompatibility of Ultrahigh Molecular Weight Polyethylene Composite
12.6 Review of Clinical Practice on Artificial Bone Implants
12.6.1 Clinical Factors for Successful Implants
12.6.1.1 Orthopaedic Implants
12.6.1.2 Cosmetic Implants
12.6.2 Development of Implant Materials
12.6.2.1 Metallic Implants
12.6.2.2 Polymeric Implants
12.6.2.3 Ceramics Implants
12.6.3 Trend of Development in Clinical Implants
12.6.3.1 Ancient Era (AD 1000)
12.6.3.2 Foundational Period (1800-1910)
12.6.3.3 Premodern Era (1901-1930)
12.6.3.4 Modern Era (1935-1978)
12.6.3.5 Implants in the 21st Century
12.7 Conclusion and Summary
Acknowledgements
References
Index