Human Biochemistry

Title page
Table of Contents
Copyright
Dedication
About the author
Preface
Introduction
Chapter 1. Organ Systems and Tissues
Abstract
Treatment of the Injured Knee: Use of Stem Cells to Replace Damaged Cartilage
Development of Organs
Gross Structures and Functions of Organ Systems
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 2. The Cell
Abstract
Cellular Trafficking in Alzheimer’s Disease
Cell Membrane
Nucleus and Cell Division
Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Mitochondria
Peroxisome
Lysosome
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 3. Introductory Discussion on Water, pH, Buffers, and General Features of Receptors, Channels, and Pumps
Abstract
Diabetes Insipidus
Thirst and Arginine Vasopressin
Action of Arginine Vasopressin on the Distal Kidney Tubule
Water and Biological Roles
Water Channels: Aquaporins
The Role of Water in Protein Folding
Protein–Water Interactions in Enzymatic Reactions
Metabolic Water
Proton Transfer in Liquid Water
The Concentration of Hydrogen Ions (Protons) in Solution (pH)
Buffers
Receptors
Ion Channels
Enzymatic Pumping Mechanism
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 4. Proteins
Abstract
Prion Disease, A Disease of Protein Conformational Change
Amino Acids
Proteins
Protein Classification
Proteomics
Protein Microarray
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 5. Enzymes
Abstract
Diagnostic Enzymology
General Aspects of Catalysis
Classification
Coenzymes
Prosthetic Groups
Enzyme Filamentation in Cellular Regulation
Drugs That Operate as Enzyme Inhibitors
Enzyme Replacement Therapy—Gaucher Disease
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 6. Insulin and Sugars
Abstract
Diabetes
Insulin
The Pancreatic β-Cell and Insulin Secretion
Detrimental Effects of Diabetes
Synthetic Sweeteners
Chemistry of Simple Sugars
Glucose Transport
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Conversion of Ribose to Deoxyribose
Carbohydrate Constituents of Proteins—Glycoproteins
Transfer of Nucleotide Sugars Into the Golgi Cisternae
Sugars in Blood Group Proteins
Enzymatic Conversion of A and B Blood Types to Type O (Universal Donor)
Lactose Intolerance
Glycobiology
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 7. Glycogen and Glycogenolysis
Abstract
Glycogen Storage Disease Type I, von Gierke Disease (and Others: At Least 11 Types of Glycogen Storage Disease)
Glycogen—The Storage Carbohydrate
Glucose Metabolism in Muscle
Glycogenin and Formation of Glycogen
Glycogenolysis (Releasing Glucose from Glycogen)
Hormonal Control of Glycogen Metabolism and Blood Glucose Level
Different Glucose Transporters in Different Tissues
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 8. Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis
Abstract
Hemolytic Anemia: Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency (A Rare Disease)
Phosphofructokinase Enzymes Involved in the Conversion of Fructose-6-Phosphate to Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphate
Cell Proliferation and Tumor Growth—The Warburg Effect
Gluconeogenesis
Alanine Cycle
Glucose Can Be Formed From Glycerol
Small-Molecule Regulation of Gluconeogenesis
Glucose Transporters
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 9. Lipids
Abstract
Hypercholesterolemia
Biosynthesis of Cholesterol
Inhibition of Liver HMG-CoA Reductase by Drugs (Statins)
The ARH Protein
Bile Acids
Fatty Acids and Fat
Properties of Lipoproteins
Lipid Anchoring of Proteins to Membranes
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
Case Study
Chapter 10. Nucleic Acids and Molecular Genetics
Abstract
Huntington’s Disease, A Single-Gene Mutation
Purines and Pyrimidines
Base Pairing
The Structure of DNA
Biosynthesis of Purines and Pyrimidines
Purine Interconversions
Catabolism of Purine and Pyrimidine Nucleotides
Salvage Pathway
Mitochondrial DNA Synthesis
DNA Mutations and Damage
Epigenetics
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 11. Protein Biosynthesis
Abstract
Defects in Mitochondrial Oxidative Phosphorylation and Disease: Deficiency in Mitochondrial Translation
Protein Synthesis in the Mitochondrion
Mitochondrial Encephalomyopathy With Lactic Acidosis and Stroke-Like Episodes
Protein Synthesis Directed by the Nucleus
The Ribosome
Proteins Synthesized in the Cytoplasm but Destined for the Mitochondria
Proteins Destined for the Nucleus
Proteins Destined for Other Sites, Including the Plasma Membrane and Secretion from the Cell
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 12. Transcription
Abstract
Congenital Heart Disease: Mutations of Transcription Factors
Transcription Factors Control Heart Development
Transcription Factors Involved in Cardiac Hypertrophy
Transcription Factors and the Transcription Complex
Enhancers
Coactivators and Corepressors
The Glucocorticoid Receptor as a Model Transcription Factor
The Inactive Glucocorticoid Receptor in the Cytoplasm and Its Activation
Classes of Nuclear Receptors
Cell Membrane Receptors
Receptor Isoforms
Chromatin
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
Case Study
Chapter 13. Metabolism of Amino Acids
Abstract
Urea Cycle–Related Disease: Hyperammonemia
The Urea Cycle
Amino Acid Metabolism: Amino and Amide Group Transfers
Transamination
Transamidation
Deamination
Oxidation of Amino Acids
Amino Acid Racemization
L-Amino Acid Decarboxylation
Metabolism of Amino Acids to Active Substances
Catabolism of Amino Acids
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 14. Metabolism of Fat, Carbohydrate, and Nucleic Acids
Abstract
Gaucher’s Disease: Most Common Lipid Storage Disease
Lipid Metabolism
Carbohydrate Metabolism
The Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle, Citric Acid Cycle, or Kreb’s Cycle
Nucleic Acid Metabolism
Overview of Metabolism
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 15. Polypeptide Hormones
Abstract
Panhypopituitarism: Malfunction of the Hypothalamus–Pituitary–End Organ Axis
Hormonal Signaling Pathways
Models of Hormone Action of Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Orexins (Hypocretins): Hypothalamic Hormones Controlling Sleep and Feeding
Adiponectin From Adipose (Fat) Tissue
Hormones of the Gastrointestinal Tract
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 16. Steroid Hormones
Abstract
Stress
Nociceptin
Responses to Stress
Production of High Levels of Cortisol (Cushing’s Disease) and Subnormal Levels of Cortisol (Addison’s Disease)
Adrenal Cortex
Structures of Steroid Hormone Receptors
Coactivators and Corepressors
Physiological Functions of Steroid Hormones From Specific Receptor Knockouts
Steroid Transporting Proteins in Plasma
Enzymatic Inactivation of Cortisol
Cortisol and Aldosterone
Dehydroepiandrosterone
Structural Considerations of Steroid Hormones
Receptor Activation
Vitamin D Hormone
Thyroid Hormone
Environmental Xenobiotics That Agonize or Antagonize the Estrogen Receptor
Cross talk Between Steroid Receptors and Peptide Hormones
Sex Hormones
Peroxisome Proliferators and Their Receptors
Glucocorticoid Induction of Programmed Cell Death (Apoptosis)
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 17. Growth Factors and Cytokines
Abstract
Prospects for Cytokine Tumor Necrosis Factor–Related Apoptosis-Inducing Ligand and Ovarian Cancer
The Tumor Necrosis Factor Superfamily
Growth Factors
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 18. Membrane Transport
Abstract
Cystic Fibrosis (Mucoviscidosis) and Aberrant Ion Transport
Types of Membrane Transport
Fatty Acid Transport Proteins
Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels
Epithelial Sodium Conductance Channel
Multidrug Resistance Channel (MDR): A Member of the Adenosine Triphosphate–Binding Cassette Transporter Superfamily
Blood–Brain Barrier
Summary
Multiple-Choice Questions
Case Study
Suggested Reading
Chapter 19. Micronutrients (Metals and Iodine)
Abstract
Iron-deficiency Anemia
Uptake of Iron During Digestion
Hepcidin, A Peptide Hormone, Is the Principal Regulator of Iron Homeostasis
Hemojuvelin, An Anchored Membrane Protein Stimulates Hepcidin Transcription Through Bone Morphogenic (Morphogenetic) Proteins and Smad
Heme Synthesis
Hemoglobin Formation
Trace Elements
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 20. Vitamins and Nutrition
Abstract
Vitamin D Deficiency
Vitamins
Thiamine (Vitamin B1, Aneurine)
Addiction
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Eye Health
The Vegan Diet
The Ketogenic (Keto) Diet and Weight Loss
The Mediterranean Diet: Probably the Healthiest Diet
Dietary Considerations in Chronic Kidney Disease
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
Case Study
Chapter 21. Blood and Lymphatic System
Abstract
Deep Vein Thrombosis
Factor V Leiden
Blood-Clotting Mechanism
Blood
Transport of Oxygen
Carbon Dioxide
Degradation of the Red Blood Cell
Bilirubin
Blood Cells
Blood Proteins
Blood Type and Rh Factor
Origin of Nonself Blood Type Antibodies
Rh Antigen
Lymphatic System
Thymosin
Summary
Suggested Reading
Multiple-Choice Questions
List of Abbreviations
Appendix 1. Abbreviations of the Common Amino Acids
Appendix 2. The Genetic Code
Appendix 3. Weights and Measures
Appendix 4. Case Based Problems Discussion
Chapter 1: Organ Systems and Tissues
Chapter 2: The Cell
Chapter 3: Introductory Discussion on Water, pH, Buffers, and General Features of Receptors, Channels, and Pumps
Chapter 4: Proteins
Chapter 5: Enzymes
Chapter 6: Insulin and Sugars
Chapter 7: Glycogen and Glycogenolysis
Chapter 8: Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis
Chapter 9: Lipids
Chapter 9: Case Study
Chapter 10: Nucleic Acids and Molecular Genetics
Chapter 11: Protein Biosynthesis
Chapter 12: Transcription
Chapter 12: Case Study
Chapter 13: Metabolism of Amino Acids
Chapter 14: Metabolism of Fat, Carbohydrate, and Nucleic Acids
Chapter 15: Polypeptide Hormones
Chapter 16: Steroid Hormones
Chapter 17: Growth Factors and Cytokines
Chapter 18: Membrane Transport
Chapter 18: Case Study
Chapter 19: Micronutrients (Metals and Iodine)
Chapter 20: Vitamins and Nutrition
Chapter 20: Case Study
Chapter 21: Blood and Lymphatic System
Index
Copyright
Title Page
Dedication
Contents
Chapter 1: ‘I’m thinking’ – Oh, but are you?
Chapter 2: Renegade perception
Chapter 3: The Pushbacker sting
Chapter 4: ‘Covid’: The calculated catastrophe
Chapter 5: There is no ‘virus’
Chapter 6: Sequence of deceit
Chapter 7: War on your mind
Chapter 8: ‘Reframing’ insanity
Chapter 9: We must have it? So what is it?
Chapter 10: Human 2.0
Chapter 11: Who controls the Cult?
Chapter 12: Escaping Wetiko
Postscript
Appendix: Cowan-Kaufman-Morell Statement on Virus Isolation
Bibliography
Index
Copyright
Title Page
Dedication
Contents
Chapter 1: ‘I’m thinking’ – Oh, but are you?
Chapter 2: Renegade perception
Chapter 3: The Pushbacker sting
Chapter 4: ‘Covid’: The calculated catastrophe
Chapter 5: There is no ‘virus’
Chapter 6: Sequence of deceit
Chapter 7: War on your mind
Chapter 8: ‘Reframing’ insanity
Chapter 9: We must have it? So what is it?
Chapter 10: Human 2.0
Chapter 11: Who controls the Cult?
Chapter 12: Escaping Wetiko
Postscript
Appendix: Cowan-Kaufman-Morell Statement on Virus Isolation
Bibliography
Index