Heterogeneous Catalysis: Materials and Applications

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Heterogeneous Catalysis: Materials and Applications
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Contents
Contributors
Chapter 1: Understanding heterogeneous catalysis: A brief study on performance parameters
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Catalysis fundamentals
Heterogeneous catalyst
Adsorption phenomenon
Catalyst properties
1.3. Performance parameters
1.4. Conclusions
Conflict of interest
References
Chapter 2: Use of CO2 as a source for obtaining value-added products
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Background
2.3. Catalytic transformations of CO2
The catalytic reduction of CO2 to methanol
Chemical production of monomers and derivatives from CO2
Carboxylation of methane with CO2
The influence of the Bronsted acid sites
Catalytic synthesis of vinyl acetate monomer from CH4 and CO2
The role of supports
Graphene support with ZnO
2.4. Neural kinetic models
2.5. Outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 3: Transition metal-based catalysts for CO2 methanation and hydrogenation
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Thermodynamic aspects of CO2 methanation and CO2 hydrogenation
The effect of temperature in CO2 methanation simulation under 1bar
The effect of the pressure in CO2 methanation
The effect of H2/CO2 ratio in CO2 methanation simulation
Thermodynamic aspect of CO2 hydrogenation
3.3. Transition metal-based catalysts in CO2 methanation and CO2 hydrogenation
Ni-based catalysts for CO2 methanation
Introduction: High activity, barrier, e.g., deactivation, and stability of Ni catalysts
Effect of the Ni loading and Ni dispersion
Effect of the support on the performance of Ni-based catalysts
On the effect of the promoter on the performance of Ni-based catalysts
The other transition metal-based catalysts in CO2 methanation
Noble metal-based catalysts
The other non-noble metal-based catalysts
Catalysts for CO2 hydrogenation to methanol
3.4. Proposed reaction mechanisms of CO2 methanation
The CO hydrogenation mechanism
The formate intermediate mechanism
The presence of side reactions in CO2 methanation reaction
3.5. Future prospects: Assisted nickel catalysts for CO2 reduction: From photocatalysis to assisted plasma catalysis
Ni-based catalysts for photocatalytic methanation
Ni-based catalysts for assisted plasma-catalytic methanation
3.6. Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Sorption enhanced catalysis for CO2 hydrogenation towards fuels and chemicals with focus on methanation
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Sorption enhanced catalysis for CO2 methanation
Water sorbent
Sorbent choice
Regeneration of sorbents
Other potential sorbents
Catalytic metals and promoters
Catalytically active metals
Promoters
Preparation of the bifunctional material
Mixing and shaping route
Catalytic metal loading route
Other considerations for the bifunctional material preparation
Characterization of the material
Performance of the material
Stability of the material
Research systems and scale
Fixed bed reactor system
Fluidized bed reactor system
Membrane reactor system
Other considerations and novel reactor system application
4.3. Conclusions and outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 5: Hydrogenation of CO2 by photocatalysis: An overview
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Photocatalytic hydrogenation of CO2
5.3. Mechanism for photocatalytic hydrogenation of CO2
5.4. Important criteria for photocatalytic hydrogenation of CO2
5.5. Types of photocatalytic hydrogenation of CO2
Photothermal hydrogenation of CO2
Biophotocatalytic hydrogenation of CO2
Photoredox hydrogenation of CO2
5.6. Reported heterogeneous photocatalysts for hydrogenation of CO2
TiO2 based photocatalysts
Quantum dot based photocatalysts
Cu-based photocatalysts
Bismuth based photocatalysts
WO3-based photocatalysts
C3N4 based photocatalysts
Complex oxide-based photocatalysts
5.7. Methods of reduction or hydrogenation of CO2
5.8. Limitations and important aspects for future perspectives
5.9. Conclusion
References
Further reading
Chapter 6: The role of CO2 sorbents materials in SESMR for hydrogen production
6.1. Introduction
6.2. The steam methane reforming process
6.3. The SESMR process
Deactivation
Influence of the temperature
Influence of the gas composition
Influence of the H2O and CO2
Regeneration
6.4. Adsorbents
CaO-based
Alkaline materials
Li-based adsorbents
Na2ZrO3 adsorbents
6.5. Reactors
6.6. Conclusions
6.1IntroductionIn December 2015, the first universal agreement was signed between 195 countries and the European Union, in the
References
Further reading
Chapter 7: Catalysts for syngas production by dry reforming of methane
7.1. Introduction
7.2. DRM heterogeneous catalysts
Active sites and methods of synthesis
Role of promoters
Acidity and basicity influence
Oxygen vacancies
Supports
Deactivation and regeneration
7.3. Final considerations
References
Further reading
Chapter 8: Dry reforming of methane for catalytic valorization of biogas
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Biogas production, composition, and valorization
Biogas production by anaerobic digestion
Biochemical reactions
Hydrolysis
Acidogenesis
Acetogenesis
Methanogenesis
Microorganisms
Phases of anaerobic digestion
Biogas composition
Biogas upgrading and purification
Biogas cleaning methods
Biogas upgrading methods
Biogas valorization
Methane utilization
Carbon dioxide utilization
Clean biogas utilization
8.3. Dry reforming of methane reaction: Advantages and disadvantages
Context
Mechanism of dry reforming of methane
Deactivation of the catalytic material
Catalyst deactivation by reoxydation
Catalyst deactivation by coking
Catalyst deactivation by sintering
Catalytic deactivation by poisoning
8.4. Catalytic reforming of biogas
Catalytic material
Catalysts composition
Active phase
Support
Promoter
Synthesis methods
Effect of pretreatment
Thermal treatment under oxidative atmosphere: Effect of oxidation
Thermal treatment under reductive atmosphere: Effect of reduction
Reaction conditions
Reaction temperature
Pressure
Inlet gas composition and flow rate
Effect of flow rate
Effect of gas composition
8.5. Conclusions and perspectives
References
Chapter 9: Catalysts for steam reforming of biomass tar and their effects on the products
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Tar classification and properties
9.3. Theoretical approach of biomass tar reforming
Catalytic steam reforming of methane
Catalytic dry reforming of methane
Catalytic tar reforming
Carbon formation
9.4. Reactor characteristics
Tar reforming parameters
Effect of temperature on the steam reforming of methane
Effect of the reaction pressure on the steam reforming of methane
Effect of steam-to-carbon S/C ratio on the steam reforming of methane
Process classification
Semi-regenerative catalytic reformer process (SRCRP)
Cyclic regenerative catalytic reformer process (CRCRP)
Continuous catalytic regeneration reformer process (CCRRP)
Reactor design
One-step processes
Fixed bed
Fluidized bed
Fluidized bed reactor for primary conversion
Fluidization gas system
Fluidized bed reactor for catalytic reforming
Spouted bed reactor
Two-step processes
Two-stage fixed-fluidized bed reactor
Two-stage fixed bed reactor
9.5. Catalysts for catalytic steam reforming
Catalysts for steam reforming
Bimetallic catalysts for steam reforming
Nickel-iron bimetallic catalysts
Nickel-cobalt bimetallic catalysts
Cobalt-iron bimetallic catalysts
Catalyst supports for catalytic reforming
Particle bed supports
Al2O3 based support
Silica-based catalyst support
Biochar-based support
Other supports
Monolithic catalyst support
Ceramic foam as catalyst support
9.6. Catalytic steam reforming of methane and light hydrocarbons
Methane steam reforming
Effect of temperature on methane steam reforming
Effect of steam-to-carbon ratio on methane steam reforming
Methane, ethane, and propane steam reforming
9.7. Catalytic steam reforming of bio-oil compounds
Toluene reforming over Ni-CeO2/SBA-15 packed bed catalysts
Effects of catalytic temperature and CeO2 loading content on the steam reforming of toluene
Effect of the S/C ratio on the steam reforming of toluene
Benzene reforming over NiO/ceramic foam catalysts
Comparison to control experiment without NiO loading
Effect of the temperature on steam reforming of benzene
Effect of S/C ratio on the steam reforming of benzene
Tar model compounds reforming over Ni/Al2O3 packed bed catalyst
Effect of Ni loading on the carbon conversion of different tar model compounds
Effect of Ni loading on the yields of different tar model compounds
Biomass tar reforming over NiO/ceramic foam catalyst
Effect of temperature on the steam reforming of biomass tar
Effect of the S/C ratio on the steam reforming of biomass tar
Biomass fuel gas reforming over NiO/monolithic porous ceramic catalysts
Non-catalytic steam reforming of biomass fuel gas
Catalytic steam reforming of biomass fuel gas
Effect of reaction temperature on the steam reforming of biomass fuel gas
Effect of S/C ratio on the steam reforming of biomass fuel gas
Effect of metal loading on the steam reforming of biomass fuel gas
9.8. Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 10: Heterogeneous catalysts for biomass-derived alcohols and acid conversion
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Alcohol conversion
Methanol
Ethanol
Propanol and isopropanol
Butanol
10.3. Diols
1,4-Butanediol
10.4. Carboxylic acids
Acetic acid
Propanoic acid
Butanoic acid
Succinic and adipic acids
Malic and lactic acids
Fatty acids
10.5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 11: Zinc oxide or molybdenum oxide deposited on bentonite by the microwave-assisted hydrothermal method: New cata ...
11.1. Introduction
Smectites applied as a catalytic support or a nanocomposite
Zinc oxide applied as a catalyst for the synthesis of biodiesel
Molybdenum oxide applied as a catalyst for the synthesis of biodiesel
11.2. Methods
Synthesis methods and impregnations of Zn and Mo oxides
Synthesis of ZnO
Synthesis of the ZnO/bentonite hybrid
Synthesis of h-MoO3 and α-MoO3
Synthesis of the MoO3/bentonite hybrid
Characterization of the catalysts and catalytic testing products
Catalytic tests
11.3. Recent advances
ZnO and ZnO/bentonite hybrids applied as catalysts for obtaining biodiesel
Catalytic test using ZnO and ZnO/bentonite hybrids
MoO3 and MoO3/bentonite applied as catalysts for the synthesis of biodiesel
Evaluation of the massic form of MoO3
Use of MoO3/bentonite hybrids as catalysts
11.4. Conclusions
11.1IntroductionBiodiesel is a fuel obtained from the transesterification of oils and fats (Fig. 11.1) using strong acid
References
Chapter 12: Assisted catalysis: An overview of alternative activation technologies for the conversion of biomass
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Synergistic effect between catalysis and mechanical forces: Cellulose as a case study
Cellulose: Hurdles faced by catalysis
``Physical´´ activation of cellulose
The mechanocatalytic process
12.3. Sonocatalysis for the conversion of biomass
Sonocatalytic conversion of lignocellulose
Sonobiocatalysis
12.4. Electroconversion of biomass
General principle of electrochemical conversion
Electroactivation of biosourced carboxylic acids
Oxidative electroconversion
Reductive electroconversion
12.5. Conclusions
References
Chapter 13: Regenerable adsorbents for SOx removal, material efficiency, and regeneration methods: A focus on CuO-based a
13.1. Introduction
Negative impacts of SO2 emissions
Regulations of SO2 emissions
Desulfurization methods
Current FGD techniques
The potential of metal oxides as SOx adsorbents
13.2. Role of the CuO support
13.3. Influence of the textural properties of the support
13.4. Influence of the preparation protocol and support treatment
13.5. Influence of active-phase loading
13.6. Doping CuO-based adsorbents with other metal oxides
13.7. Influence of the operational conditions of the adsorption step
13.8. Influence of the regeneration conditions
13.9. Aging and stability of the SOx adsorbents over time
13.10. Conclusions
References
Chapter 14: Solid oxide cells (SOCs) in heterogeneous catalysis
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Background of separation processes in heterogeneous catalysis
14.3. Electrode materials
Electrode materials for oxidizing conditions
Electrode materials for reducing conditions
14.4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 15: Electrocatalytic oxygen reduction and evolution reactions in solid oxide cells (SOCs): A brief review
15.1. Introduction
15.2. Oxygen reactions
15.3. Mixed ionic-electronic conductors
15.4. Experimental techniques to determine oxygen kinetics
Isotope exchange depth profiling
18O-16O pulse isotopic exchange
Oxygen exchange mechanism
Electrical conductivity relaxation
15.5. Anode degradation in SOECs
15.6. Oxygen electrode materials
(La,Sr)(Co,Fe)O3-δ and (Ba,Sr)(Co,Fe)O3-δ (LSCF and BSCF)
Double perovskites
Ruddlesden-Popper nickelates
Layered Ca and Ba cobaltites
15.7. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 16: Catalysts for hydrogen and oxygen evolution reactions (HER/OER) in cells
16.1. Introduction
16.2. Hydrogen (H2) production by water splitting
Fundamentals of the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER)
Fundamentals of the oxygen evolution reaction (OER)
16.3. Improving electrocatalyst materials
16.4. Perspectives
16.5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 17: Zeolitic imidazolate framework 67 based metal oxides derivatives as electrocatalysts for oxygen evolution rea ...
17.1. Introduction
Water splitting and hydrogen generation
Oxygen evolution reaction
Coordination polymers
Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks
17.2. Recent advances
ZIF-67 and its derivatives
General aspects in the obtention of ZIF-67 derivatives
Cobalt oxide-based electrocatalysts derived from ZIF-67
ZIF-67-derived cobaltites
Bimetallic systems
17.3. Conclusions
References
Chapter 18: Electrochemical ammonia synthesis: Mechanism, recent developments, and challenges in catalyst design
18.1. Introduction
18.2. Electrochemical synthesis of ammonia
Liquid electrolytes
Molten salt electrolytes
Solid oxide electrolytes
18.3. Basics of N2 reduction reaction
Mechanisms of N2 reduction reaction (NRR)
Computational modeling studies on electrochemical NRR
Experimental studies on electrocatalyst development
18.4. Outlook
18.5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 19: Non-faradaic electrochemical modification of catalytic activity: A current overview
19.1. Introduction
19.2. Phenomenology and key aspects
19.3. Parameters to evaluate the NEMCA effect
19.4. Solid electrolytes
Yttria-stabilized zirconia
19.5. Metal catalyst preparation
19.6. Measurement techniques
19.7. Summary of performed EPOC studies
19.8. Scaling up
19.9. Final remarks
Acknowledgments
References
Index
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