Hemicellulose Biorefinery: A Sustainable Solution for Value Addition to Bio-Based Products and Bioenergy

Preface
About This Book
Contents
About the Editor
1: Hemicelluloses Role in Biorefinery Systems of Cellulosic Bioethanol, Particleboard, and Pulp and Paper Industries
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Hemicelluloses Valorization in the Cellulosic Bioethanol Production
1.2.1 Hemicelluloses Recovery in 2G Bioethanol Process
1.3 Hemicelluloses Valorization in the Pulp and Paper Industry
1.4 Hemicelluloses Valorization in Particleboard Fabrication
1.5 Challenges of Biological Aspects of Pentoses Fermentation of Lignocellulosic Hydrolysates Using Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1.5.1 Yeast Engineering For Second Generation Bioethanol
1.5.1.1 Xylose Fermentation
1.5.1.2 Arabinose Fermentation
1.5.1.3 Engineering Pentose Transports in S. cerevisiae Strains
1.6 Yield Loss Through the Formation of Inhibitors During the Hydrolysis of Lignocellulose Materials
1.6.1 Genetic Advances to Improve Yeast Tolerance to Lignocellulosic Hydrolysates
1.7 Concluding Remarks
References
2: Sustainable Biorefinery Processing for Hemicellulose Fractionation and Bio-based Products in a Circular Bioeconomy
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Processing and Fractionation of Biomass: Hydrothermal-High Pressure Pretreatment
2.3 High Added Value Products from Hemicellulosic Fraction
2.3.1 Films and Coatings
2.3.2 Xylitol
2.3.3 Xylooligosaccharides: Production and Market Potential
2.3.4 Furfural and Its Derivatives
2.3.5 Ethanol from Hemicelluloses: Fermentation of Hexoses and Pentoses
2.4 Conclusion and Final Remarks
References
3: Production of Hemicellulosic Sugars from Residual Lignocellulosic Biomass in an Integrated Small-Scale Biorefinery: Techno-...
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Heuristic Analysis
3.2.1 Feedstock
3.2.2 Biorefinery Design
3.2.3 Preliminary Assessments
3.2.4 Process Scale Selection
3.2.5 Process Technologies Choice
3.2.6 Evaluation of Product Competitors
3.2.7 Process Modelling
3.2.8 Application of the Heuristic Approach to the Case-Study
3.2.8.1 Available Feedstock
3.2.8.2 Biorefinery Design
3.2.8.3 Technology Matureness Level
3.2.8.4 Preliminary Assessments
3.2.8.5 Process Scale and Scenario Selection
3.3 Detailed Process Design and Simulation
3.3.1 Process Modelling
3.3.1.1 Drying and Milling
3.3.1.2 Pre-treatment
3.3.1.3 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
3.3.1.4 Fermentation
3.3.1.5 Ethanol Distillation and Dehydration
3.3.1.6 Xylo-Oligosaccharides Purification
3.3.1.7 Wastewater Treatment
3.3.1.8 Anaerobic Digestion
3.3.1.9 Combined Heat and Power Generation
3.3.2 LCB Only
3.3.3 Results
3.4 Techno-Economic Assessment
3.4.1 Methodology
3.4.2 Results
3.5 Life Cycle Assessment
3.5.1 Goal and Scope
3.5.2 Life Cycle Inventory
3.5.3 Environmental Characterization
3.5.4 Effect of the Use of Swine Manure (Wet Biomass)
3.6 Legal Framework and Implementation Potential for Rural Areas
3.7 Conclusions
References
4: Composition and Chemical Structure of Hemicelluloses and Polysaccharides with Capability of Gel Formation
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Hemicelluloses
4.2.1 Supramolecular Structure
4.2.2 Xylans
4.2.3 Glucomannans
4.2.4 Hemicellulose-Lignin Complex
4.3 Polysaccharides Capable of Forming Gels
4.3.1 Pectic Substances and Pectin
4.3.1.1 Pectin Structure
4.3.1.2 Chemical Characteristics and Their Effects on Emulsifying Pectin Capacity
4.3.1.3 Sources of Pectin and Extraction Method
4.3.2 Xyloglucan
4.3.3 Carrageenan
4.3.3.1 Structure
4.4 Conclusion
References
Analytical Techniques Applied to Hemicellulose Structure and Functional Characterization
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Composition of Hemicelluloses
5.2 Physical-Chemical Analytical Methods of Hemicelluloses
5.2.1 Chemical Characterization
5.2.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
5.2.2.1 Liquid-Solid or Adsorption Chromatography
5.2.2.2 Liquid-Liquid or Partition Chromatography
5.2.2.3 Liquid Chromatography with Chemically Bound Phase
5.2.2.4 Ion-Exchange Chromatography
5.2.2.5 Bio-affinity Chromatography
5.2.2.6 Chiral Chromatography
5.2.2.7 Exclusion Chromatography
5.2.3 High-Performance Anion Exchange Chromatography (HPAEC)
5.2.4 Infrared Spectroscopy
5.2.5 X-Ray Techniques
5.2.6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
5.3 Hemicellulose Bioactivity
5.4 Concluding Remarks
References
6: Chemical Modification Strategies for Developing Functionalized Hemicellulose: Advanced Applications of Modified Hemicellulo...
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Solubilization of Hemicellulose
6.2.1 Solubilization of Hemicellulose in the Form of High and Low DP
6.2.1.1 Alkaline Treatment Method
6.2.1.2 Liquid Hot Water Treatment Method
6.2.1.3 Organic Solvent Treatment Method
6.2.1.4 Enzymatic Solubilization Process
6.2.2 Solubilization of Hemicellulose in the Form of Monosaccharides
6.2.2.1 Acid hydrolysis Method
6.2.2.2 Steam Explosion Method
6.3 Chemical Modifications of Hemicellulose
6.3.1 Hemicellulose Esterification
6.3.1.1 Acetylation
6.3.1.2 Oleoylation
6.3.1.3 Lauroylation
6.3.1.4 Fluorination
6.3.1.5 Crosslinking/Graft Copolymerization
6.3.2 Etherification of Hemicellulose
6.3.2.1 Methylation
6.3.2.2 Carboxymethylation
6.3.2.3 Benzylation
6.4 Concluding Remarks
References
Enzymatic Approach on the Hemicellulose Chain Structural Modification and the Main Enzymes Production and Purification
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Hemicellulose and Other Components in Biomass
7.3 Hemicellulose Bioproducts
7.4 Enzymatic Modifications of Xylan
7.5 Xylanases Production from Fungi and Bacteria
7.6 Improvement of Xylanase Production and Purification
7.7 Biosynthesis of Xylan
7.8 Concluding Remarks
References
8: Hemicellulose Application for the Production of Bioplastics and Biomaterials
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Plastic
8.2.1 Origin of Plastics and Their Importance for Society
8.2.2 Negative Impacts Caused by an Irregular Plastics Disposal
8.3 Bioplastics
8.3.1 Origin of Bioplastics
8.3.2 Bioplastic Composition and Structure
8.3.3 The Bioplastics Market
8.3.4 Emerging Technologies for Bioplastics Produced with Hemicellulose
8.3.4.1 Importance of Plasticizer for Hemicellulose Films
8.3.4.2 Development of Biomolecule Blends
8.3.4.2.1 Compatibility and Miscibility
8.3.4.3 Crosslinking Agents in Polymeric Chains
8.3.4.4 Functional Biopackages
8.3.4.5 Other Applications of Hemicellulose as a Biomaterial
8.4 Concluding Remarks
References
9: Oligosaccharides from Lignocellulosic Biomass and Their Biological and Physicochemical Properties
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Chemical Structure and Composition
9.3 Properties of Oligosaccharides
9.3.1 Physicochemical Properties
9.3.2 Biological/Physiological Properties
9.4 Production of Prebiotic Oligosaccharides
9.4.1 Chemical Hydrolysis
9.4.1.1 Dilute Acid Hydrolysis
9.4.1.2 Autohydrolysis
9.4.1.3 Alkaline Solubilization
9.4.2 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
9.4.2.1 β-Xylanases
9.4.2.2 β-d-Mannanases
9.4.2.3 Debranching Enzymes (Accessory Enzymes)
9.4.2.3.1 α-Arabinofuranosidase
9.4.2.3.2 α-Glucuronidase
9.4.2.3.3 Galactosidase
9.4.2.4 Synergy and Enzymatic Cocktails for the Production of Xylan/Mannan Oligosaccharides
9.4.3 Industrial Production
9.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
Advances and New Perspectives in Prebiotic, Probiotic and Symbiotic Products for Food Nutrition and Feed
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Prebiotics
10.2.1 Definition and Classification
10.2.2 Mechanisms of Action
10.2.3 Main Action Molecules
10.2.3.1 Fructooligosaccharides
10.2.3.2 Xylooligosaccharides
10.2.3.3 Galactooligosaccharides
10.3 Intestinal Microbiota
10.3.1 Composition and Colonization of the Microbiota
10.3.2 Importance of Intestinal Microbiota
10.3.3 Microbiota and Diseases
10.4 Probiotics
10.4.1 Definition and Classification
10.4.2 Mechanisms of Action
10.4.2.1 Modulation of the Immune System
10.4.2.2 Mucosal Barrier
10.4.2.3 Inhibition of Pathogens
10.4.2.3.1 Short-Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs)
10.4.2.3.2 Bacteriocins
10.4.3 Probiotic Properties of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus
10.5 Symbiotics
10.6 Evaluation Models of Prebiotics, Probiotics, and Symbiotics
10.6.1 Prebiotics
10.6.1.1 ``In Vitro´´ Tests
10.6.1.2 ``In Vivo´´ Tests
10.6.2 Probiotics
10.6.2.1 ``In Vitro´´ Tests
10.6.2.2 ``In Vivo´´ Tests
10.6.3 Symbiotics
10.6.3.1 ``In Vitro´´ and ``in Vivo´´ Tests
10.7 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Hemicellulose Sugar Fermentation: Hydrolysate Challenges, Microorganisms, and Value-Added Products
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Value-Added Products from Hemicellulose
11.3 Biomass Resources of Hemicellulose
11.4 Pretreatment Methods: Hemicellulose Hydrolysis and Degradation Products Formation
11.4.1 Hemicellulose Hydrolysate Detoxification Methods
11.5 Microorganisms Used in Hemicellulose Sugar Fermentation and Xylose Metabolism
11.6 Improved Xylose-Fermenting Microorganisms by DNA Technology
11.7 Conclusion
References
12: Production of Platform Chemicals and High Value Products from Hemicellulose
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Furans
12.2.1 Furfural
12.2.2 Furfuryl Alcohol
12.2.2.1 Two-Step Technology
12.2.2.2 Single-Step One-Pot Process
12.3 Polyols
12.3.1 Xylitol
12.3.1.1 Catalyst Precursor Structure
12.3.1.2 Noble Metal-Based Catalysts
12.3.1.3 Bimetallic Catalytic Systems
12.3.2 Ethylene Glycol and Propylene Glycol
12.4 Carboxylic Acids
12.4.1 Levulinic Acid
12.4.1.1 Xylose Direct Conversion
12.4.1.2 Furans Conversion
12.4.2 Lactic Acid
12.4.2.1 Conversion of Trioses
12.4.2.2 Pentoses Conversion
12.5 Summary and Outlook
References
13: Synthesis of Furan Compounds from Hemicelluloses
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Properties of Furfural
13.3 Influencing Factors of Furfural Production
13.3.1 Raw Material
13.3.2 Solvent System
13.3.2.1 Monophasic System
13.3.2.2 Biphasic System
13.3.3 Catalyst
13.3.3.1 Homogeneous Catalyst
13.3.3.2 Heterogenous Catalyst
13.3.4 Temperature, Time, Heating Method and Additive
13.4 Furfural Production
13.4.1 Production of Furfural from Xylose
13.4.2 Production of Furfural from Hemicellulose
13.4.3 ``One-Pot´´ Method for Furfural Production from Lignocellulosic Biomass
13.4.4 Two-Step Method for Furfural Production from Lignocellulosic Biomass
13.5 The Formation Mechanism of Furfural
13.5.1 Hydrolysis Mechanism of Hemicellulose
13.5.2 Dehydration Mechanism of Xylose to Furfural
13.5.2.1 Cyclic Mechanism for Furfural Formation from Xylose
13.5.2.2 Acyclic Mechanism for Furfural Formation from Xylose
13.5.2.2.1 Protonation of Ring Oxygen (O5)
13.5.2.2.2 Protonation of C2-OH
13.5.2.3 Mechanism of Furfural Formation from Xylose Catalyzed by Brønsted Acid and Lewis Acid
13.6 Synthesis of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) from Hemicellulose
13.6.1 Properties of 5-HMF
13.6.2 Production of 5-HMF from Hemicellulose Derived Sugars
13.6.3 Formation Mechanism of 5-HMF from Hexose
13.6.3.1 Formation Mechanism of 5-HMF from Fructose
13.6.3.2 Formation Mechanism of 5-HMF from Aldose
References
14: Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Applications of Xylan and Its Derivatives
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Xylan
14.1.1.1 Homoxylan
14.1.1.2 Arabinoxylan
14.1.1.3 Glucuronoxylan
14.1.1.4 Glucuronoarabinoxylan or Arabinoglucuronoxylan
14.2 Extraction of Xylan
14.3 Xylan-Based Biorefineries
14.3.1 Hydrolysis of Xylan
14.3.1.1 Xylooligosaccharides Production by Physicochemical Hydrolysis
14.3.1.2 Xylooligosaccharides Production by Enzymatic Hydrolysis
14.3.2 Xylan Derivatives
14.3.2.1 Xylan Ester
14.3.2.2 Sulfated Xylan
14.3.2.3 Xylan-Based Other Biorefinery Products
14.4 Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Applications of Xylan Derivatives
14.4.1 Xylan-Based Drug Delivery Systems
14.4.1.1 Xylan-Based Films for Drug Delivery
14.4.2 Xylan-Based Hydrogels for Drug Delivery
14.4.3 Xylan-Based Microparticles and Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery
14.5 Conclusions
References
15: Hemicellulose-Based Delivery Systems: Focus on Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Structure
15.3 Sources
15.4 Biodegradability and Biocompatibility of Hemicelluloses
15.5 Gelation Mechanism of Hemicelluloses
15.6 Applications
15.6.1 Pharmaceutical Applications
15.6.1.1 Hydrogels
15.6.1.1.1 Hydrogels Using Chemically Modified Hemicellulose
15.6.1.1.2 Hemicellulose-Containing Interpenetrating Network (IPN) Hydrogels
Temperature-Responsive Hydrogels
pH-Responsive Hydrogels
Magnetic Field Responsive Hydrogels
Photosensitive Hydrogels
Electric-Responsive Hydrogels
Nanoreinforced Hydrogels
Hemicellulose-Reinforced Nanocellulose Hydrogels
15.6.1.2 Films
15.6.1.3 Nanocomposites
15.6.1.4 Microparticles
15.6.2 Biomedical Applications
15.6.2.1 Wound Healing
15.6.2.2 Tissue Engineering
15.7 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References