Heating and Cooling with Ground-Source Heat Pumps in Cold and Moderate Climates: Fundamentals and Basic Concepts

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface - Volume 1
Biography
1. Introduction
2. Outlook for Building Heating and Cooling Loads, and Simulation Tools
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Outdoor and Indoor Design Conditions
2.3 Residential Buildings
2.3.1 Heating Loads
2.3.2 Cooling Loads
2.4 Commercial and Institutional Buildings
2.4.1 Heating Loads
2.4.2 Cooling Loads
2.5 Building Simulation Software Tools
References
3. Conventional Building HVAC Systems
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Residential and Small Commercial/Institutional Buildings
3.2.1 Air-Source Heat Pump and Furnace Split Systems
3.2.2 Dual (Hybrid)-Energy Source Heat Pump Systems
3.2.3 Heat-Augmented Heat Exchanger
3.2.4 Brine Heat Exchanger
3.2.5 Add-On Heat Exchanger
3.2.6 Mini-Split Air-Source Heat Pump Systems
3.3 Large-Scale Commercial/Institutional Buildings
3.3.1 All-Air HVAC Systems
3.3.2 All-Water HVAC Systems
3.3.3 Air-Water HVAC Systems
References
4. Geothermal Energy Resources
4.1 Introduction
4.2 High-Temperature (Deep) Geothermal Energy
4.3 Medium-Temperature Geothermal Resources
4.4 Low-Temperature Geothermal Resources
4.5 Very-Low (Shallow) Geothermal Energy
References
5. Ground/Soil Types and Thermo-Physical Properties
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Ground/Soil Types
5.3 Density
5.4 Mass Specific Heat
5.5 Thermal Resistivity and Thermal Stability
5.6 Moisture Content
5.7 Thermal and Hydraulic Conductivity
5.8 Thermal Diffusivity
References
6. Determination of Ground/Soil Effective Thermal Conductivity
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Laboratory Methods
6.3 In-Field Experimental Method
6.3.1 Mobile Apparatus
6.3.2 Testing Procedure
6.3.3 Evaluation of Thermal Conductivity
References
7. Classifications of Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Classification According to Application Field
7.3 Classification According to Heat/Sink Sources and Common Configurations
References
8. Geothermal Heat Pumps
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Thermodynamic Parameters
8.3 Subcritical Mechanical Vapor Compression Geothermal Heat Pumps
8.3.1 Energy Balance and Thermal Efficiency
8.3.2 Exergy Analysis
8.3.2.1 Definitions
References
9. Refrigerant-to-Air Condensers
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Typical Construction
9.3 Thermal Design
Reference
10. Air-to-Refrigerant Evaporators
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Construction
10.2.1 Tubes
10.2.2 Refrigerant Distribution
10.2.3 Fins
10.2.4 Air Distribution
10.2.5 Condense Draining
10.2.6 Materials
10.2.7 Moisture Frosting
10.3 Design
10.3.1 Air Side
10.3.2 Refrigerant-Side
10.3.3 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
10.3.4 Heat Transfer Rate
References
11. Closed-Loop (Indirect, Secondary Fluid) Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Building Closed-Loops with Distributed Geothermal Heat Pumps
11.3 Central Geothermal Heat Pumps
11.4 Materials
11.5 Brine and Water Pumping
11.5.1 Centrifugal Pumps
11.5.2 System and Pump Curves
11.5.3 Friction Losses and Pressure Drops
11.5.4 Pumping Power
11.5.5 Pump Efficiency
11.5.6 Affinity Laws
11.5.7 Pump Arrangements
11.5.7.1 Parallel
11.5.7.2 Series
References
12. Vertical Closed-Loop (Indirect, Secondary Fluid) Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Residential and Small Commercial/Institutional Buildings
12.2.1 Operating Modes
12.3 Large-Scale Commercial/Institutional Buildings
References
13. Heat Transfer
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Heat Transfer Inside Boreholes
13.2.1 Borehole Equivalent Diameter
13.2.2 Heat Transfer Structure
13.2.3 Borehole Thermal Resistance
13.3 Heat Transfer Outside Boreholes
13.3.1 Heat Flux and Temperature Profile
13.3.2 Analytical Models
13.3.2.1 Infinite Line-Source Model
13.3.2.2 Infinite Cylindrical-Source Theory
13.3.3 Numerical Models
13.3.3.1 Long-Time Step Temperature Response Factors
13.3.3.2 Short-Time Step Temperature Response Factors
References
14. Horizontal Closed-Loop (Indirect, Secondary Fluid) Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Residential and Small-Scale Commercial/Institutional Buildings
14.2.1 Operating Modes
14.3 Large-Scale Commercial/Institutional Buildings
14.4 Heat and Mass Transfer
14.4.1 Ground/Soil Surface
14.4.1.1 Solar Incident (Direct) Short-Wave Radiation
14.4.1.2 Sky Long-Wave Thermal Radiation
14.4.1.3 Convective Heat Transfer
14.4.1.4 Latent (Evaporation/Condensation) Heat Transfer
14.4.1.5 Precipitation (Sensible) Heat Transfer
14.5 Temperature of Ground/Soil
14.6 Heat Transfer Around Horizontal Buried Pipes
14.6.1 Single Horizontal Pipe
14.6.2 Multiple Horizontal Pipes
14.7 Flow Inside Horizontal Pipes
14.7.1 Friction Losses
14.8 Heat Transfer Inside Horizontal pipes
References
15. Closed-Loop Direct Expansion (Mono-Fluid) Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Basic Concepts and Operating Principle
15.3 Advantages
15.4 Limitations
15.5 Horizontal Direct Expansion Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems
15.5.1 Basic Concepts
15.5.2 In-Tube Refrigerant Vaporization
15.5.2.1 Two-Phase Flow Patterns
15.5.2.2 Pressure Drops
15.5.2.3 Heat Transfer
15.5.3 In-Tube Refrigerant Condensation
15.5.3.1 Flow Pattern
15.5.3.2 Heat Transfer
15.5.4 Heat Transfer Around the Horizontal Tubes
15.5.4.1 Single Tube
15.5.4.2 Multiple Tubes
15.6 Vertical Direct Expansion Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems
15.6.1 Basic Concepts
15.6.2 Kaye's Improved Concept
15.6.3 Minea's Improved Concept
15.6.4 Refrigerant-Side Vaporization
15.6.4.1 Flow Patterns
15.6.4.2 Pressure Drops
15.6.4.3 Heat Transfer
15.6.4.4 Refrigerant-Side Condensation
References
16. Closed-Loop Vertical Thermo-Syphon Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Basic Configurations
16.3 Working Fluids
16.4 Operating Principle
16.5 Density and Pressure Profiles
16.6 Temperature Profile
16.7 Velocity Profile
16.8 Heat Transfer
16.8.1 Pool Boiling in Evaporator
16.8.2 Film Condensation
16.8.3 Thermal Resistances
16.8.3.1 Evaporator
16.8.3.2 Condenser
16.8.3.3 Overall Thermal Resistance
16.8.4 Energy Performance
16.9 Advantages and Limitations
16.10 Further R&D Needs
References
17. Open-Loop Groundwater Heat Pump Systems
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Aquifers
17.3 Groundwater Quality
17.4 Groundwater Table
17.5 Physical Properties
17.6 Potential Problems
17.6.1 Scaling
17.6.2 Corrosion
17.6.3 Clogging and Fouling
17.6.4 Organisms
17.6.5 Sand
17.7 Thermal Storage
17.8 Maintenance Aspects
17.9 Advantages
17.10 Limitations
References
18. Open-Loop, Dual and Multiple-Well Groundwater Heat Pump Systems
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Basic Configurations
18.2.1 Residential and Small-Scale Commercial/Institutional Buildings
18.2.2 Large-Scale Commercial/Institutional Buildings
18.3 Groundwater Wells
18.3.1 Production (Supply) Wells
18.3.2 Return (Injection) Wells
18.4 Groundwater Pumping
18.4.1 Groundwater Submersible Well Pumps
18.4.2 Groundwater Flow Testing
References
19. Open-Loop Single-Well (Standing Column) Groundwater Heat Pump Systems
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Standing Column Wells
19.3 Basic Concepts
19.4 Groundwater Flow
19.4.1 Flow Outside Standing Columns
19.4.2 Flow Inside Standing Columns
19.5 Groundwater Bleeding
19.6 Heat Transfer Around and Inside Standing Columns
19.6.1 Heat Transfer Around Standing Column Wells
19.6.2 Heat Transfer Inside Standing Column Wells
References
20. Surface Water Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Basic Concepts
20.2.1 Open-Loop Systems
20.2.2 Closed-Loop Systems
20.3 Moving and Stationary Surface Waters
20.3.1 Thermodynamic Properties
20.3.2 Thermal Stratification, Mixing, and Turnover
20.3.3 Heat Transfer in Lakes
20.4 Design and Installation Principles
20.5 Advantages and Limitations
References
21. Advantages and Limitations of Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Advantages
21.2.1 Energy Source Quality and System Efficiency
21.2.2 Technology Feasibility and Building Integration
21.2.3 Capital Costs
21.2.4 Operating Costs
21.2.5 Maintenance Costs
21.2.6 Payback Period
21.2.7 Life Cycle Costs
21.2.8 Environmental Impacts
21.3 Limitations
References
22. Future R&D Requirements
22.1 Introduction
22.2 General Heat Pumping Context
22.3 Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems
References
Index