Handbook of Thermal Plasmas

Foreword
Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: Fundamentals of Thermal Plasmas
1 The Plasma State
1 Introduction
2 The Plasma State, Fourth State of Matter
2.1 What Is a Plasma?
2.2 Plasma Temperature(s)
3 Different Types of Plasmas
3.1 Natural Plasmas
3.2 Man-Made Plasmas
3.2.1 Townsend Discharge
3.2.2 Glow Discharge
3.2.3 Arc Discharges
4 Nonequilibrium, Man-Made Cold Plasmas (TeTh)
4.1 Glow Discharges and Some of Their Applications
4.1.1 Lamps
4.1.2 Plasma-Assisted Physical Vapor Deposition (PA-PVD)
4.1.3 Plasma-Assisted Chemical Vapor Deposition (PA-CVD)
4.2 Corona Discharges
4.3 Dielectric-Barrier Discharges (DBD)
4.3.1 Microwave Plasmas
4.4 Thermal, Man-Made Plasmas
4.5 Basic Concepts Used for the Generation of Thermal Plasmas
4.5.1 Thermal Arcs
4.5.2 Inductively Coupled Discharges
4.6 Thermal Plasma Sources and Their Fields of Applications
4.6.1 Plasma Torches with Hot Cathodes
4.6.2 Plasma Torches with Cold Electrodes
4.6.3 Segmented Plasma Torches for Materials Testing Under Reentry Conditions
4.6.4 RF Inductively Coupled Plasmas
5 Nomenclature
5.1 Latin Alphabet
5.2 Greek Alphabet
References
2 Basic Atomic and Molecular Theory
1 Introduction
2 Atomic Models
2.1 Bohr´s Model
2.2 Line Emission
2.3 Line Absorption
3 The Hydrogen Atom and Its Eigenfunctions
3.1 The Schrödinger Equation
3.2 Solution of the Schrödinger Equation
3.3 Quantum Numbers
3.4 Probability Distribution
4 The Structure of More Complex Atoms
4.1 Atomic Structure
4.2 Electronic States of Atoms
4.2.1 Momentum
4.2.2 Energy Transitions
4.3 Designation of Electron Configurations
4.3.1 L-S Coupling
Designation of L-Values
Designation of Terms
Designation of Levels
Designation of Parity
Example
Energy of the Spectral Levels
Selection Rules for Dipole Radiation in the Case of L-S Coupling
4.3.2 j-j Coupling
5 Excited States of Diatomic Molecules
5.1 Energy States
5.2 Classification of the Electronic States of Diatomic Molecules
5.2.1 Orbital Angular Momentum
5.2.2 Spin
5.2.3 Total Angular Momentum of the Electrons
5.2.4 Angular Momenta for the Rotation of the Molecule
5.2.5 Coupling of Rotation and Electronic Motion
Hund´s Case (a)
Hund´s Case (b)
5.3 General Remarks About Molecular Spectra
5.4 The N2+ (-1) Spectra
5.4.1 Rotational Structure
5.4.2 Vibrational Structure
6 Nomenclature
6.1 Latin Alphabet
6.2 Greek Alphabet
6.3 Subscripts
References
3 Kinetic Theory of Gases
1 Introduction
2 Particles and Collisions
3 Cross Sections and Collision Frequencies
3.1 Collision Probabilities
3.2 Collision Cross Sections
3.3 Collision Frequencies and Scattering Cross Sections
3.4 Mean Free Paths
3.5 Total Effective Cross Section Qi(v) for Collision Processes
4 Elementary Processes for Elastic Collisions
5 Elementary Processes for Inelastic Collisions
5.1 Excitation
5.1.1 Excitation by Photons
5.1.2 Excitation by Electron Impact
5.1.3 Excitation by Impact of Atoms or Ions
5.2 Ionization
5.2.1 Ionization by Photons
5.2.2 Ionization by Electron Impact
5.2.3 Ionization by Impact of Atoms or Molecules
5.3 Inelastic Collisions of the Second Kind
5.3.1 Associative Ionization
5.3.2 Ionization of Already Excited Atoms by Electron Impact
5.3.3 Charge Exchange Processes
5.3.4 The Penning Effect
6 Distribution Functions
6.1 Definition
6.2 Particle Fluxes
6.3 The Boltzmann Equation
6.4 The Maxwellian Distribution
6.5 Collision Probabilities and Mean Free Paths in a Particle Ensemble
7 Reaction Rates
7.1 Binary Reactions
7.2 Three-Body Reactions
7.3 Recombination
7.3.1 Radiative Recombination
7.3.2 Dissociative Recombination
7.3.3 Three-Body Recombination
8 Nomenclature
8.1 Latin Alphabet
8.2 Greek Alphabet
References
4 Fundamental Concepts in Gaseous Electronics
1 Introduction
2 Generation of Charge Carriers
2.1 Direct Ionization
2.2 Indirect Ionization
3 Loss of Charge Carriers
4 Motion of Charge Carriers
4.1 Drift in Electric Fields
4.2 Diffusion of Charge Carriers
4.3 Motion of Charge Carriers in Magnetic Fields
5 Thermal Excitation and Ionization
5.1 Boltzmann Distribution
5.2 Saha Equilibrium
5.3 Complete Thermal Equilibrium (CTE)
5.4 The Concept of Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium (LTE)
5.4.1 Kinetic Equilibrium
5.4.2 Excitation Equilibrium
5.4.3 Ionization Equilibrium
5.5 Deviations from LTE
6 Rigorous Definition of the Plasma State
6.1 The Debye Length in a Plasma
6.2 Characteristic Lengths in Plasma
7 Quasi-neutrality
7.1 Charge Separation by Diffusion
7.2 Charge Carrier Separation by Magnetic Fields
8 Plasma Sheaths
9 Nomenclature
9.1 Latin Alphabet
9.2 Greek Alphabet
References
5 The Plasma Equations
1 Introduction
2 Definitions
3 Conservation Equations
3.1 Conservation of Mass
3.2 Conservation of Momentum
3.3 Conservation of Energy
3.4 Entropy Balance
4 Onsager´s Reciprocity Relations
5 Heat of Transition and Energy Fluxes
6 Diffusion and Energy Fluxes
7 Example of Mass and Energy Fluxes
8 Transport Equations for a Fully Ionized Plasma
8.1 Plasma Exposed to an Electric Field
8.2 Plasma Exposed to Electric and Magnetic Fields
9 Determination of Transport Coefficients
10 Nomenclature
10.1 Latin Alphabet
10.2 Greek Alphabet
References
6 Thermodynamic Properties of Plasmas
1 Introduction
2 General Remarks
3 Thermodynamic Functions for CTE
3.1 Notation
3.2 Partition Functions
3.3 Thermodynamic Functions
3.3.1 Perfect Gases
3.3.2 Debye Correction
3.3.3 Virial Correction
3.4 Computation of Partition Functions
3.4.1 Translational Partition Functions
3.4.2 Limitations of the Internal Partition Functions
3.4.3 Data Base
4 Composition of a Plasma at Constant Pressure in CTE
4.1 Equilibrium Relationships
4.1.1 Conservation of the Species
Dalton´s Law
4.2 Law of Mass Action
4.3 Calculation of the Plasma Composition
4.3.1 Favorite Method and Computer Codes
4.3.2 Data Base
4.3.3 Composition of Simple Plasma Gases
4.3.4 Composition of Complex Mixtures
Air Plasma
Ar-H2 Mixture
Ar-He Mixture
Water Plasma
Other Compositions
5 Thermodynamic Properties of Plasmas in CTE
5.1 Specific Heat at Constant Pressure
5.2 Enthalpy and Entropy
6 Complementary Issues in Plasma Calculations
6.1 Presence of Solid Particles
6.2 Calculations at Constant Volume
6.3 Sound Velocity and Adiabatic Coefficient
7 Nomenclature
7.1 Latin Alphabet
7.2 Greek Alphabet
References
7 Transport Properties of Gases Under Plasma Conditions
1 Introduction
2 Definitions
3 Simplified Derivation of the Transport Coefficients
3.1 Self-Diffusion Coefficient
3.2 Viscosity
3.3 Thermal Conductivity
3.4 Electrical Conductivity
4 Derivation of the Transport Coefficients
4.1 Basic Equations
4.2 Fluxes
4.3 Calculation of Distribution Functions
5 Transport Properties of Equilibrium Plasmas
5.1 Main Parameters
5.2 Second Parameters
6 Transport Coefficients of Gases in CTE
6.1 Examples for Simple Gases
6.1.1 Electrical Conductivity
6.1.2 Viscosity
6.1.3 Thermal Conductivity
6.2 Examples for Complex Gas Mixtures
6.2.1 Electrical Conductivity
6.2.2 Viscosity
6.2.3 Thermal Conductivity
6.2.4 Diffusion Coefficient
6.3 Precisions of Such Calculations
6.4 Mixing Rules and Their Limitations
7 Nomenclature
7.1 Latin Alphabet
7.2 Greek Alphabet
References
8 Plasma Radiation Transport
1 Introduction
2 General Concepts
2.1 Definitions
2.2 Blackbody Radiation
2.2.1 Planck´s Law
2.2.2 Wien´s Law
2.2.3 Stefan-Boltzmann Law
2.3 Gaseous Radiation
2.3.1 Volumetric Emission Coefficient
2.3.2 Absorption Coefficient
2.3.3 Relationship Between Emission and Absorption
3 Radiation Mechanisms in Plasmas
3.1 Spontaneous Emission
3.2 Induced Emission
3.3 Absorption
3.4 Microreversibility Principle
3.5 Effective Radiative Lifetime of an Excited State
4 Radiation Emission and Absorption
4.1 Classification of Emitted Radiation
4.1.1 Bound-Bound Transitions
4.1.2 Free-Bound and Free-Free Transitions
Free-Bound Transitions
Free-Free Transitions
4.2 Line Radiation
4.2.1 Line Broadening
Natural Line Width
Doppler Line Width
Stark Broadening
Resulting Profiles
4.2.2 Volumetric Spectral Emission Coefficient Neglecting Absorption
4.3 Continuum Radiation
4.3.1 General Relationships
4.3.2 Free-Bound Transitions
Hydrogenic Levels
Nonhydrogenic Atoms and Ions
4.3.3 Free-Free Transitions
4.3.4 Total Continuum Radiation
4.3.5 Other Contributions
Negative Ions
Pseudo Continuum
4.3.6 Examples of Continuum Radiation
4.4 Total Effective Radiation of Plasmas
4.4.1 Optically Thin Plasma
4.4.2 Gray Body Approximation
4.4.3 Diffusion Approximation
4.4.4 Effective Emission Coefficient of Lowke
Effective Line Radiation
Effective Continuum Radiation
4.5 Thermal Plasma Radiation Modeling
4.5.1 Approximate Solutions
4.5.2 Pressure Effect
4.5.3 Comparison of Methods of Calculation
4.5.4 Mixing Rules
5 Examples
5.1 Classical Plasma Gases
5.1.1 Argon Plasma
5.1.2 Nitrogen Plasma
5.1.3 Other Plasmas Used in Industry
5.2 Plasma Seeded with Metallic Vapors
6 Blackbody Radiation of High-Temperature Gases
7 Two-Temperature Plasma
7.1 Emission and Calculation of Net Emission Coefficient (NEC)
7.1.1 Atomic Gas
Emission
Emission and Absorption: Net Emission Coefficient (NEC)
Metal Vapors
7.1.2 Molecular Gases
7.2 Radiative Transfer
7.2.1 Atomic Species
7.2.2 Molecular Plasmas
8 Nomenclature
8.1 Latin Alphabet
8.2 Greek Alphabet
8.3 Superscripts
8.4 Subscripts
References
9 Thermodynamic Properties of Non-equilibrium Plasmas
1 Introduction
2 General Remarks
3 Two-Temperature Plasmas
3.1 Calculation Basis
3.2 Partition Function Calculation in Two-Temperature Model
3.3 Calculations of the Plasma Composition
3.3.1 Dissociation Reaction
3.3.2 Ionization Reactions
3.4 Results Obtained with Different Methods
3.5 Thermodynamic Properties
4 Deviations from Local Chemical Equilibrium
4.1 Calculation Basis
4.1.1 Stationary Kinetic Calculation
4.1.2 State-to-State Approach
4.1.3 Pseudo-equilibrium Calculation
4.2 Example of Results for Compositions
4.2.1 Stationary Kinetic Calculation
4.2.2 Pseudo-Equilibrium Calculation
5 Nomenclature
5.1 Latin Alphabet
5.2 Greek Alphabet
References
10 Transport Properties of Non-Equilibrium Plasmas
1 Introduction
2 General Remarks
2.1 Simplified Models
2.2 Chapman-Enskog Method and Stefan-Maxwell Relations
3 Non-equilibrium Transport Properties
3.1 Solution of Rat et al. (2001b)
3.1.1 Equations
3.1.2 Transport Coefficients
Diffusion
Electrical Conductivity
Viscosity
Thermal Conductivity
Translational Thermal Conductivity
Reactional Thermal Conductivity
3.2 Solution of Zhang et al. (2013)
4 Examples of Results
4.1 Monoatomic Gases
4.1.1 Argon
4.1.2 Argon-Helium
4.2 Diatomic Gases
4.2.1 Hydrogen
4.2.2 Nitrogen
4.2.3 Oxygen
4.2.4 Carbon Dioxide
4.3 Complex gases and mixtures in NLTE and NLCE
4.3.1 Ar-H2 Mixtures Under Non-equilibrium Conditions
4.3.2 N2-H2 Under Non-equilibrium Conditions
4.3.3 Ar-H2-He (30-10-60 mol%) Under Non-equilibrium Conditions
5 Nomenclature
5.1 Latin Alphabet
5.2 Greek Alphabet
References
Part II: Generation of Thermal Plasmas
11 Basic Concepts of Plasma Generation
1 Introduction
2 Electrical Discharge Systems
3 Direct Current (DC) Discharges
3.1 Dark Current and Townsend Discharge
3.2 Townsend Coefficients
3.2.1 First Townsend Coefficient, α
3.2.2 Second Townsend Coefficient, β
3.2.3 Secondary Emission Coefficient, γ
3.3 Townsend Breakdown Criterion and Paschen Law
3.4 Glow Discharges
3.4.1 Subnormal Glow Discharge
3.4.2 Normal Glow Discharge
3.4.3 Abnormal Glow Discharge
3.5 Transition from Glow to Arc Discharges
3.5.1 Transition to the Arc
3.5.2 The Arc Discharge
3.6 Corona Discharges
3.7 Spark Breakdown and Streamer Mechanism
3.7.1 Spark Breakdown
3.7.2 Streamer Mechanism
4 Alternating Current (AC), Radio Frequency (RF), and Microwave (MW) Discharges
4.1 Alternating Current (AC) Discharges
4.2 Radio Frequency (RF) Discharges
4.2.1 General Considerations
4.2.2 High Frequency Breakdown
4.3 Microwave (MW) Discharges
5 Nomenclature
5.1 Latin Alphabet
5.2 Greek Alphabet
References
12 Thermal Arcs
1 Introduction
2 The Arc Column and Electrode Regions
2.1 General Considerations
2.1.1 Relatively High Current Densities
2.1.2 Low Cathode Fall
2.1.3 High Luminosity of the Column
2.2 The Arc Column
2.2.1 Definition
2.2.2 The Elenbaas-Heller Model
2.2.3 The Watson Models
2.3 The Electrode Regions
2.3.1 Cathode Region
2.3.2 Anode Region
3 Arc Characteristics and Electrical Stability
3.1 Current-Voltage Characteristics
3.2 Electrical Stability
3.3 Classification of Arcs According to Their Stabilization
3.3.1 Free-Burning Arcs
3.3.2 Self-Stabilized Arc
3.3.3 Gas Stabilization
3.3.4 Wall-Stabilized Arcs
3.3.5 Vortex-Stabilized Arcs
3.3.6 Electrode-Stabilized Arcs
3.3.7 Magnetically Stabilized Arcs
4 Nomenclature
4.1 Latin Alphabet
4.2 Greek Alphabet
References
13 Electrode Phenomena in Plasma Sources
1 Introduction
2 Hot Cathodes
2.1 Thermionic Emission Mechanism
2.2 Cathode Materials
2.2.1 Tungsten
2.2.2 Refractory Oxides and Carbides
2.3 Cathode Erosion
2.3.1 Stick Type Doped Tungsten Cathodes
2.3.2 Rod-Type Graphite Electrode with Carbon Redeposition
2.3.3 Button-Type Cathodes for Nonoxidizing Gases
2.3.4 Button-Type Cathodes for Oxidizing Gases
3 Cold Cathodes
3.1 Field and/or Thermionic Field Emission Mechanisms
3.2 Cathode Materials and Erosion
4 Anodes
4.1 Static Behavior
4.2 Dynamic Behavior
4.2.1 Anode Perpendicular to the Arc Axis
4.2.2 Anode Parallel to the Arc Axis
4.3 Anode in a Molten State
5 Nomenclature
5.1 Latin Alphabet
5.2 Greek Alphabet
References
14 DC Plasma Torch Design and Performance
1 Introduction
2 Basic Concepts
3 Arc Stabilization in DC Plasma Sources
3.1 Free Arc-Length Constrictor Design
3.2 Fixed Arc-Length Constrictor Design
3.2.1 Cascaded Arc
3.2.2 Segmented Constrictor with Gas Injection
3.2.3 Transpiration-Cooled Constrictor
3.2.4 Cylindrical Torch Nozzle with a Step Change in Its Diameter
3.3 Gas Flow Pattern
3.3.1 Coaxial Flow
3.3.2 Cross Flow
3.3.3 Radial Flow
3.3.4 Vortex Flow
3.4 Magnetic Rotation of the Arc Root
4 Electrode Designs
4.1 Hot Cathode Designs
4.1.1 Tungsten with or Without Doping (Arc Currents Below 1000-1200 A)
4.1.2 Tungsten with or Without Doping (Arc Currents Between 1000 and 6000 A)
4.1.3 Zirconium, Hafnium, Hafnium Carbide Cathodes
4.1.4 Graphite Electrodes
4.2 Cold Cathode Designs
4.2.1 General Remarks
4.2.2 Cathode Materials
4.2.3 Magnetic Field Configuration
4.2.4 Vortex Flow
4.3 Anodes
4.3.1 General Remarks
4.3.2 Dynamic Behavior
4.4 Cooling of the Electrodes
4.5 Erosion of the Electrodes
5 Ignition of the Arc
5.1 Arc Ignition by Electrode Contact
5.2 Arc Ignition Using a Wire or Rod Explosion
5.3 Arc Ignition by Pre-ionization with a High-Voltage, High-Frequency Discharge
5.4 Starting Circuitry and Power Supply Matching
6 Performance Characteristics
6.1 Plasma Torches
6.1.1 Current Voltage Characteristics
6.1.2 Thermal Efficiencies
6.1.3 Enthalpies
6.2 Interaction of the Plasma Jet and the Surrounding Atmosphere
6.2.1 Turbulent Mixing and Its Effect on Plasma Jets
6.2.2 Nozzle Extensions
6.2.3 Laminar Jets
6.3 Transferred Arcs
6.3.1 Current Voltage Characteristics
6.3.2 Heat Transferred to the Anode
7 Nomenclature
7.1 Latin Alphabet
7.2 Greek Alphabet
References
15 Plasma Torches for Cutting, Welding, and PTA Coating
1 Introduction
2 General Remarks
3 Plasma arc Cutting (PAC)
3.1 Evolution of Different Cutting Processes
3.2 Basic Concepts of the Plasma arc Cutting (PAC) Torch Design
3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.2 Arc Stabilization Mechanism
3.2.3 Choice of Plasma Gas
3.3 PAC Torch Characteristics
3.3.1 General Remarks
3.3.2 Flow and Temperature Fields in a PAC Torch
3.3.3 Arc Dynamics
3.3.4 Cathode Erosion
3.4 Optimization of the PAC Process
3.4.1 Independent Parameters of the PAC Process
3.4.2 Energy Balance
3.4.3 Cut Profile
4 Plasma ARC Welding (PAW)
4.1 Overview of Plasma Arc Welding Processes
4.2 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)/Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding
4.3 Wire Electrode Plasma Arc Welding
4.3.1 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)/Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding
4.3.2 Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
4.3.3 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
4.3.4 Electroslag Welding (ESW)
4.4 Laser-Assisted Arc Welding
4.5 Basic Phenomena in Plasma Arc Welding Processes
4.5.1 Arc Constriction and Weld Pool Profile
4.5.2 Keyhole Formation in Plasma Arc Welding
4.5.3 Metal Transfer in Wire Electrode Arc Welding
5 Plasma Transferred Arc (PTA) Coating
5.1 Basic Concepts
5.2 Equipment and Operating Parameters
5.3 Process Characterization
5.3.1 Temperature Distributions in the Arc
5.3.2 Heat Flux to the Substrate
5.3.3 PTA Process Modeling
5.4 Effect of Process Parameter Changes on Coating Properties
5.4.1 Transferred Arc Current
5.4.2 Pilot Arc Current
5.4.3 Torch-to-Substrate Distance
5.4.4 Plasma Gas Flow Rate
5.4.5 Powder Feed Rate
5.4.6 Substrate Material Properties
5.4.7 Substrate Motion
5.5 Process Modifications and Adaptations
5.5.1 Variation of Ratio of Pilot Arc Current to Transfer Arc Current
5.5.2 Variation of Powder Feed
5.5.3 Nitriding of Coating
5.5.4 Modulation of Deposition Parameters
5.5.5 High-Energy PTA
5.5.6 PTA Deposition with a Negative Workpiece Polarity
5.5.7 Hard Coatings on Magnesium
6 Nomenclature
6.1 Latin Alphabet
6.2 Greek Alphabet
References
16 Wire-Arc Spray Torches
1 Introduction
2 Basic Concepts of Wire Arc Spraying
3 Equipment Design and Operating Parameters
3.1 Conventional Twin-Wire Arc Spraying (TWAS)
3.2 High-Velocity Twin-Wire Arc Spraying (HVTWAS)
3.3 Single-Wire Arc Spraying (SWAS)
4 Process Characterization
4.1 Droplet Formation Mechanism
4.2 Particle Size Distribution (PSD)
4.3 Particle Velocity and Flux Distribution
4.4 Particle Temperature
4.5 Splat and Coating Formation
4.6 Coating Characteristics
5 Fume Formation
6 Process Modeling
7 Low-Pressure Wire arc spraying
8 Summary and Conclusions
9 Nomenclature
9.1 Latin Alphabet
9.2 Greek Alphabet
References
17 Plasma Spray Torches
1 Introduction
2 Basic Concepts of Plasma Spraying
2.1 Plasma Spraying and the Thermal Spray Industry
2.2 Plasma Spray Torches
2.2.1 DC Plasma Torches
2.2.2 Wire-Arc Spray Torches
2.2.3 Plasma Transferred Arc (PTA) Torches
2.2.4 RF Inductively Coupled Plasma Torches
2.3 Principle of Plasma Spraying
2.3.1 Principal System Components
2.3.2 Splat Formation
2.3.3 Beads and Coating Formation
2.3.4 Finishing and Posttreatment of Coatings
3 DC Plasma Spray Torches
3.1 Conventional Plasma Spray Torches
3.2 Effect of Nozzle Design
3.3 Supersonic Atmospheric Plasma Spraying
3.4 Mini and Micro Plasma Spray Torches
3.5 The Triplex Torch
3.6 Delta Plasma Spray Torch
3.7 DC Plasma Torches with Axial Particle Injection
4 High-Power DC Plasma Spray Torches
4.1 Cascade Plasma Torches
4.2 PlazJet Torch
4.3 Water-Stabilized Plasma Spray Torch
4.4 CACT Plasma Torch
5 Plasma Spray System Configurations
5.1 Atmospheric Plasma Spraying (APS)
5.2 Controlled Atmosphere Plasma Spraying (CAPS)
5.3 Vacuum Plasma Spraying (VPS)
5.4 Plasma Spraying-Physical Vapor Deposition (PS-PVD)
6 Nomenclature
6.1 Latin Alphabet
6.2 Greek Alphabet
References
18 RF Inductively Coupled Plasma Torches
1 Introduction
2 General Remarks
3 Energy Coupling Mechanism
3.1 Skin Depth
3.2 Energy Coupling Efficiency
3.3 Minimum Sustaining Power
4 Induction Plasma Torch Design
4.1 Early Developments of the Inductively Coupled Plasma Torch
4.2 Flow Stabilization Mechanism
4.3 Quartz-Wall Induction Plasma Torches
4.4 Segmented Metal Wall Torches
4.5 Ceramic Wall Torches
4.6 Hybrid Plasma Torches
4.7 Multicoil Plasma Torches
5 Energy Balance
5.1 RF Power Supply Circuit Analysis
5.2 Energy Balance Data
6 Characteristics of RF Inductively Coupled Plasmas
6.1 Electrical and Magnetic Fields
6.2 Temperature Fields
6.3 Flow Fields
6.4 Concentration Fields
7 Nomenclature
7.1 Latin Alphabet
7.2 Greek Alphabet
References
19 High-Power Plasma Torches and Transferred Arcs
1 Introduction
2 General Remarks
3 Plasma Torches with Cold Cathodes
3.1 Hüls Plasma Torches
3.2 Westinghouse Torches
3.3 SKF Plasma Torch
3.4 Aerospatiale Torches
3.5 UCC: Linde Torches
3.6 Tioxide Torch
3.7 Plasma Energy Corporation (PEC) Torches
3.8 Russian Plasma Torches
4 Plasma Torches with Hot Cathodes
5 Segmented Plasma Torches
5.1 Acurex Torch
5.2 Russian Fixed-Arc Plasma Torches
5.3 EADS-Astrium-Tekna Segmented Plasma Torches
6 Multi-arc Gas Heaters
6.1 Multi-torch Heater
6.2 Ionarc
6.3 Alternating Current Arc Gas Heaters
7 Plasma Transferred-Arc Furnaces
7.1 General Remarks
7.1.1 Extractive Metallurgy
7.1.2 Remelting and Purification of Metals
7.1.3 Ladle or Tundish Heating of Steel
7.2 Basic Design Features of Transferred-Arc Furnaces
7.3 Examples of Transferred-Arc Furnaces with Hot Cathodes
7.3.1 Daido Steel Co., Japan
7.3.2 Freital/Voestalpine, Austria
7.3.3 Tetronics, UK
7.4 Examples of Transferred-Arc Furnaces with Cold Cathodes
7.4.1 Retech, USA, and Leybold, Germany
7.4.2 Plasma Energy Corporation (PEC), USA
7.4.3 Kobe Steel, Japan
8 Graphite Electrode Transferred-Arc Furnaces
8.1 Graphite Electrode EAFs in the Metallurgical and Waste Treatment Industry
8.2 Graphite Electrode Characteristics
8.3 Examples of DC- and AC-EAFs Using Graphite Electrodes
9 Nomenclature
9.1 Latin Alphabet
9.2 Greek Alphabet
References
Part III: Plasma and Particle Dynamics
20 Plasma Diagnostics, Optical Emission and Absorption Spectroscopy
1 Introduction
2 Basic Concepts of Optical Emission Spectroscopy
2.1 Atomic and Ionic Spectral Lines
2.2 Molecular Bands
2.3 Continuum Emission
2.4 Multi-temperature Concept
3 Optical Emission Spectroscopic Methods
3.1 Absolute Line Intensity Measurement
3.2 Line Intensity Ratio
3.3 Boltzmann Plot
3.4 Intensity Distribution of Spectral Lines
3.5 Electron Density Measurement by Stark Broadening
4 Experimental Considerations
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Optical Setup
4.3 Data Acquisition and Signal Processing
4.4 Abel´s Inversion
4.5 Computer Tomography
5 Examples of Optical Emission Spectroscopic Measurements
5.1 Transferred Arcs
5.2 Axially Symmetric Atmospheric DC Plasma Jets
5.3 RF Inductively Coupled Plasmas
5.4 Computer Tomography of DC Plasma Jets
6 Absorption Spectroscopy
6.1 Basic Concepts
6.2 Measurement Techniques
6.3 Examples of Results
6.3.1 Use of Another Plasma Source as Reference
6.3.2 Use of Hollow Cathode Lamp
6.3.3 Use of Tunable Laser
7 Summary and Conclusions
8 Nomenclature
8.1 Latin Alphabet
8.2 Greek Alphabet
References
21 Plasma Diagnostics, Laser, Flow Visualization, and Probe Techniques
1 Introduction
2 Laser Techniques
2.1 Laser Scattering Techniques
2.1.1 Basic Concepts of Thomson and Rayleigh Scattering
2.1.2 Temperature and Species Concentration Measurement
2.1.3 Velocity Measurement Using Laser Scattering
2.2 Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Spectroscopy (CARS)
2.2.1 Basic Concepts
2.2.2 Experimental Methods and Typical Examples
2.3 Laser-Induced Fluorescence (LIF)
2.3.1 Basic Concepts
2.3.2 Experimental Approach and Typical Examples
2.4 Laser Absorption Spectroscopy (LAS)
2.4.1 Basic Concepts
2.4.2 Experimental Approach and Typical Examples
2.5 Two-Photon Absorption Laser-Induced Fluorescence (TA-LIF)
2.5.1 Basic Concepts
2.5.2 Experimental Approach and Typical Examples
2.6 Degenerate Four-Wave Mixing (DFWM)
2.6.1 Basic Concept
2.6.2 Experimental Approach and Typical Examples
3 Flow Visualization Techniques
3.1 Conventional Photography
3.2 High-Speed Photography
3.3 Photography of Dusty Plasma Systems
3.3.1 Photography in the Presence of Ultrafine Particles
3.3.2 Photography in the Presence of Hot Course Particles
3.3.3 High-Speed Flash Photography
3.4 Shadowgraph
3.4.1 Basic Concepts
3.4.2 Experimental Approach and Typical Examples
3.5 Schlieren
3.5.1 Basic Concepts
3.5.2 Experimental Approach
4 Probe Techniques
4.1 Basic Concept
4.2 Enthalpy Probe Design and Operation
4.3 Experimental Approach and Typical Examples
5 Summary and Conclusion
6 Nomenclature
6.1 Latin Alphabet
6.2 Greek Alphabet
References
22 Powders and In-Flight Particle Diagnostics
1 Introduction
2 Particle Characterization
2.1 Particle Morphology
2.2 Particle Size and Shape Factor
2.3 Particle Size Distribution
3 Measurement of Powder Parameters
3.1 Particle Size Distribution
3.1.1 Sieving and Screen Analysis
3.1.2 Optical or Electron Microscopy
3.1.3 Light Scattering
3.1.4 Coulter Counter
3.1.5 Specific Surface Area
3.2 Powder Flowability
3.3 Powder Apparent and Tap Density
4 In-Flight Particle Diagnostics
4.1 Individual Particle Diagnostics
4.1.1 Particle Visualization
4.1.2 Laser Doppler Anemometry
4.1.3 Time-of-Flight Approach
4.1.4 Near-Infrared Sensor
4.1.5 DPV-2000
4.2 Ensemble Particle Diagnostics
4.2.1 Basic Concepts
4.2.2 SprayView
4.2.3 SprayWatch
4.2.4 AccuraSpray
4.2.5 Individual Versus Ensemble Particle Diagnostics
5 Integration of Diagnostic Tools in Process Control
6 Summary and Conclusions
7 Nomenclature
7.1 Latin Alphabet
7.2 Greek Alphabet
References
23 Plasma-Particle Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer
1 Introduction
2 Flow Around a Single Sphere
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Drag Coefficient
2.3 Corrections to the Drag Coefficients for Thermal Plasma Conditions
2.3.1 Effect of Temperature Gradients
2.3.2 Effect of Particle Shape
2.3.3 Non-continuum Effect
2.3.4 Effect of Particle Charging
3 Plasma-Particle Heat Transfer
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Heat Transfer Coefficient
3.3 Corrections to the Heat Transfer Coefficient for Thermal Plasma Conditions
3.3.1 Effect of Temperature Gradients
3.3.2 Non-continuum Effect
3.4 Radiation Energy Losses from the Surface of the Particle
4 Transient Heating and Melting of a Particle Under Plasma Conditions
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Transient Heating of a Particle with Infinite Thermal Conductivity
4.3 Transient Heating of a Particle Taking into Account Internal Heat Conduction
4.4 The Moving Boundary Problem
4.5 Transient Heating and Melting of a Porous Spherical Particle
5 Particle Vaporization Under Plasma Conditions
5.1 Basic Mechanism of Particle Vaporization
5.2 Effect of Vaporization on the Heat Transfer to a Spherical Particle
5.3 Effect of Radiation on Particle Vaporization
5.4 Specific Energy Requirement for Metallic Particle Vaporization
5.5 Effect of Mass Transfer and Chemical Reactions on Particle Vaporization
6 Chemical Reactions and Melt Circulation Within a Spherical Particle
6.1 Diffusion Controlled Reaction
6.2 Reactions Taking Place Between Condensed Phases
6.3 Reactions Controlled by Convection Within the Liquid Phase
6.4 Bi-modal: Nano- and Micrometer Sized Particles and Coating Structures
7 Summary and Conclusions
8 Nomenclature
8.1 Latin Alphabet
8.2 Greek Alphabet
8.3 Subscripts
References
24 Plasma-Particle Interactions in Thermal Plasma Processing
1 Introduction
2 Powder Injection in Thermal Plasmas
2.1 Basic Concepts
2.2 Design Consideration of Particle Injector Design
2.3 Effect of Carrier Gas
3 Suspension and Solution Injection in Thermal Plasmas
3.1 Basic Concept
3.2 Gas Atomization
3.3 Mechanical Atomization
4 In-Flight Plasma-Droplet Interactions
4.1 Liquid Penetration into the Plasma Flow
4.2 Liquid Fragmentation
4.3 Droplets Fragmentation and Vaporization
4.4 Influence of Arc Root Fluctuations
4.5 Cooling of Plasma Flow by the Liquid
5 Particle Trajectory and Temperature History Calculations
5.1 Model Formulation
5.2 Basic Assumptions and Governing Equations
5.2.1 Equation of Motion
5.2.2 Energy Equation
5.3 Particle Trajectory in DC Plasma Jets
5.3.1 Influence of the Injection Conditions
5.3.2 Optimization of the Injection
5.3.3 Influence of Plasma Jet Fluctuations
5.4 Trajectory Corrections Due to Various Effects
5.4.1 Effect of Temperature Gradient
5.4.2 Effect of Rarefaction and Vaporization
5.4.3 Effect of Turbulence
Thermophoresis Effect
5.4.4 Other Effects
Particle Shape
Particle Charging
Problem of Particle Inertia
5.5 Particle Trajectory in Induction Plasmas
6 Plasma-Particle Interactions Under Dense Loading Conditions
6.1 PSI-Cell Model
6.2 Basic Assumptions and Governing Equations
6.2.1 The Plasma Equations
6.2.2 Electromagnetic Field Equations
6.2.3 Boundary Conditions For Flow, Enthalpy, and Concentration Fields
6.2.4 Boundary Conditions For Electromagnetic Field
6.3 Particle Trajectories and Temperature History Calculations
6.4 Typical Results for RF-ICP Melting/Vaporization of Powders
6.5 Plasma-Particle Interactions in Induction Plasma Spraying
6.6 Three-Dimensional Modeling of Plasma-Particle Interactions
6.7 Further Developments in Particle Loading Studies
6.7.1 Model Validation
6.7.2 Specific Energy Requirement for Powder Processing
7 Summary and Conclusions
8 Nomenclature
8.1 Latin Alphabet
8.2 Greek Alphabet
References
Part IV: Industrial Applications of Thermal Plasmas
25 Plasma Spray Process Integration
1 Introduction
2 Plasma Spray Process Design
3 Surface Preparation
3.1 Substrate Design Considerations
3.2 Surface Cleaning
3.3 Masking
3.4 Surface Roughening
4 Plasma Spray System Components
4.1 Plasma Spray Torch/Gun
4.2 Power Supply
4.3 Gas Supply
4.4 Feed Material Supply
4.5 Spray Gun and Workpiece Manipulators
4.6 Control Console
4.7 Spray Booth
4.8 Exhaust Gas/Air Evacuation and Filter
4.9 Cooling Water Chiller and Heat Exchanger
5 Examples of TPS System Integration
5.1 Wire Arc Spraying
5.2 Atmospheric DC Plasma Spraying
5.3 Controlled Atmosphere DC Plasma Spraying
5.4 Vacuum DC Plasma Spraying
5.5 RF Induction Plasma Spraying
6 Instrumentation and Process Control
6.1 Core System Instrumentation
6.2 Substrate Diagnostics
6.2.1 Substrate Surface Temperature
6.2.2 Coating Thickness
6.3 Spray Medium Diagnostics
6.3.1 Optical Emission/Absorption and Laser Spectroscopy
6.3.2 Flow Visualization
6.3.3 Enthalpy Probe
6.4 In-Flight Particle Diagnostics
6.4.1 Particle Imagery
6.4.2 DPV-2000 In-Flight Particle Diagnostics
6.4.3 Ensemble Particle Diagnostics
6.4.4 Individual Versus Ensemble Particle Diagnostics
6.5 Process Control
7 Finishing and Post-Treatment
7.1 Machining (Turning, Milling)
7.2 Grinding
7.3 Fusion of Self-Fluxing Alloys
7.4 Heat Treating or Annealing
7.5 Hot Isostatic Pressing
7.6 Austempering Heat Treatment
7.7 Laser Glazing
7.8 Sealing
7.8.1 Organic Sealants
7.8.2 Inorganic Sealants
7.9 Spark Plasma Sintering
7.10 Peening or Rolling Densification
8 Safety and Environmental Hazards
8.1 Powders: Respiratory Problems and Explosions
8.1.1 Particles and Pulmonary System
8.1.2 Toxicity of Powders
8.1.3 Pyrophoric Powders
8.2 Gases
8.2.1 Gases Used for the Spray Process
8.2.2 Gases Resulting from the Spray Process
8.2.3 Gases Storage
8.3 Prevention and Safety Measures
8.3.1 Powders
8.3.2 Gases
8.4 Other Risks
8.4.1 Noise
8.4.2 Radiation
8.4.3 Thermal Risks
8.4.4 Electric Risks
8.4.5 Robot-Associated Risks
9 Summary and Conclusions
10 Nomenclature
10.1 Latin Alphabet
10.2 Greek Alphabet
References
26 Plasma in the Thermal Spray Coating Industry
1 Introduction
2 Thermal Spray Coating by Country
2.1 North America
2.2 Europe
2.3 Japan
2.4 China
2.5 South Korea
2.6 India
3 Comparative Analysis of Thermal Spray Coating Processes
3.1 Cold Spray
3.2 Combustion-Based Thermal Spraying
3.2.1 Flames Spraying
3.2.2 High-Velocity Flame Spraying
3.2.3 Detonation Gun spraying
3.3 Plasma-Based Thermal Spraying
3.3.1 Atmospheric Plasma Spraying
3.3.2 Controlled Atmosphere Plasma Spraying
3.3.3 Vacuum Plasma Spraying
3.3.4 Ultra-Low-Pressure Plasma Spraying
3.3.5 Induction Plasma Spraying
3.4 Wire Arc Spraying
3.5 Plasma-Transferred Arcs Deposition
4 Thermal Spray Coating by Industry
4.1 Aerospace
4.2 Land-Based Turbines
4.3 Automotive
4.4 Land-Based and Marine Applications
4.4.1 Sacrificial Coatings
4.4.2 No-Sacrificial Coatings
4.5 Electrical and Electronic Industries
4.6 Medical Applications
4.7 Ceramic and Glass Manufacturing
4.8 Printing Industry
4.9 Pulp and Paper
4.10 Metal Processing Industries
4.10.1 Components of Furnaces or Boilers
4.10.2 Molds
4.10.3 Die Casting
4.10.4 Entrance and Exit Rolls for Steel Processing Line
4.10.5 Galvanized and Aluminized Steel Sheets
4.11 Petroleum and Chemical Industries
4.12 Utilities
4.12.1 For Fluidized Bed Combustor Boilers
4.12.2 For Coal-Fired Boilers
4.13 Textile and Plastic Industries
4.14 Polymers
4.15 Reclamation
4.16 Other Applications
5 Technoeconomic Analysis
5.1 Different Cost Contribution Factors
5.2 Direct Cost Factors
5.2.1 The Cost of Materials
5.2.2 The Cost of Gases, Electricity, and Consumables
5.2.3 Direct Labor Cost
5.2.4 Direct Cost for Quality Control, Packing, and Labeling
5.3 Indirect or Fixed Cost Factors
5.3.1 Capital Investments
5.3.2 Other Indirect or Fixed Costs
5.4 Few Examples
5.4.1 Cost of DC Atmospheric Plasma Spraying of YPSZ
5.4.2 MCrAlY Coatings Sprayed Using HPPS and Wire Arc Spray
5.4.3 Manual Wire Flame Zn Coating
5.4.4 Cost Analysis for NiAl Coatings Using APS vs. WAS
5.4.5 Cost Comparison for Hard Chromium Replacement
6 Summary and Conclusions
7 Nomenclature
7.1 Latin Alphabet
7.2 Greek Alphabet
References
27 Plasma in the Aerospace Industry
1 Introduction
2 Basic Concepts
3 Plasma Generators for Aerospace Applications
3.1 Thermal Arc Generators
3.1.1 Constricted-Type Thermal Arc Generators
3.1.2 Hüls-Type Thermal Arc Generator
3.1.3 Segmented-Type Thermal Arc Generator
3.1.4 Magneto-Plasma-Dynamic Generator
3.2 Induction Plasma Generators
3.2.1 Open Discharge Induction Plasma Generator
3.2.2 Supersonic Induction Plasma Generator
4 Plasma Wind Tunnels Testing Facilities
4.1 Arnold Engineering Development Center (AEDC) USA
4.2 NASA Ames Research Center, USA
4.2.1 Aerodynamic Heating Facility (AHF)
4.2.2 Interaction Heating Facility (IHF)
4.2.3 Panel Test Facility (PTF)
4.2.4 Turbulent Flow Duct (TFD)
4.3 Center for Hypersonics and Entry Systems Studies, U. of Illinois, USA
4.4 Arianegroup, France
4.4.1 Arianegroup, COMETEE
4.4.2 Arianegroup, SIMOUN
4.4.3 Arianegroup, GSHE
4.4.4 Arianegroup JP-200
4.5 ONERA, France
4.6 CIRA, Italy
4.6.1 SCIROCCO
4.6.2 GHIBLI
4.7 Institut für Raumfahrtsysteme (IRS), U. of Stuttgart, Germany
4.8 DLR-Institut für Aerodynamik und Strömungstechnik, Germany
4.9 Von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamic, Belgium
5 Material Testing in Plasma Wind Tunnels
5.1 Test Section Design
5.2 Test Procedure and Results
5.3 Plasma Flow Modeling
6 Summary and Conclusions
7 Nomenclature
7.1 Latin Alphabet
7.2 Greek Alphabet
27.7 Appendix A
References
28 Plasma in the Metallurgical Industry
1 Introduction
2 High Power Electric Arc Furnaces
3 Plasma Generators for Metallurgical Applications
4 Plasma Smelting
4.1 Plasma Blast Process
4.2 PlasmaSmelt Process
4.3 PlasmaDust/ScanDust Process
4.4 Plasma Ferroalloy Production
5 Plasma Scrap Melting
5.1 Plasma-Fired Cupola
5.2 Open-Bath Furnaces
5.2.1 Tetronics Transferred Arc Furnace
5.2.2 Freital-Vöest Alpine Transferred Arc Furnace
5.2.3 Krupp Three-Phase AC Arc Furnaces
5.2.4 Plasma Induction Furnaces
5.2.5 Molten Falling Film Arc Furnace
5.3 Plasma Ladle and Tundish Heating
5.3.1 Plasma Ladle Heating and Refining
5.3.2 Tundish Plasma Heating
6 Plasma Nonferrous Metallurgy
6.1 Plasma Cold Hearth Melting
6.2 Plasma Progressive Casting Furnace
7 Plasma Powder Metallurgy
7.1 Plasma Spheroidization
7.2 Plasma Atomization
7.2.1 Plasma Rotating Electrode Process
7.2.2 DC-Triple Plasma Atomization Process
7.2.3 RF-Induction Plasma Atomization Process
8 Summary and Conclusions
9 Nomenclature
9.1 Latin Alphabet
9.2 Greek Alphabet
References
29 Plasma in the Chemical Process Industry
1 Introduction
2 Basic Concepts
2.1 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
2.2 Chemical Equilibrium
2.3 Reaction Kinetics
2.3.1 Reaction Rate Calculation
2.3.2 Conversion Rate at Constant Reaction Temperature
2.3.3 Conversion for a Given Temperature History
2.3.4 Conversion for a Given Flow and Temperature History
2.4 Quenching
2.5 Particle Nucleation and Growth
2.5.1 Nonreactive Plasma System
2.5.2 Reactive Plasma System
2.6 Plasma Synthesis and Handling of Ultrafine Powders
3 Plasma Production of Acetylene from Natural Gas and Light Hydrocarbons
3.1 The Arc Process
3.2 The Two-Stage Process
3.3 Further Process Development
4 Plasma Processing and Synthesis of Materials
4.1 The Ionarc Plasma Process
4.2 Tioxide Plasma Process
4.3 Plasma Overcladding of Fiber Optics Preform
4.4 Plasma Spheroidization of Powders
4.5 Plasma Synthesis of Ultrafine and Nano-powders
5 Summary and Conclusion
6 Nomenclature
6.1 Latin Alphabet
6.2 Greek Alphabet
References
30 Plasma in the Waste Treatment Industry
1 Introduction
2 Plasma Treatment of Municipal Solid Waste
2.1 Waste Composition
2.2 Plasma Technologies for the Treatment of Municipal Solid Waste
2.2.1 Plasma Pyrolysis of Municipal Solid Waste
2.2.2 Plasma Gasification of Municipal Solid Waste
2.2.3 Hydrogen Recovery from Gasification Effluents
3 Plasma Treatment of Industrial Waste Materials
3.1 Plasma Compaction and Vitrification of Waste Materials
3.1.1 Tetronics, Farringdon, UK
3.1.2 Phoenix Solutions/PEC, Minneapolis, MN, USA
3.1.3 Retech Inc., Ukiah, CA, USA
3.1.4 Europlasma, France
3.2 Plasma Treatment of Hazardous Waste Materials
3.2.1 What Is a Hazardous Waste?
3.2.2 Plasma Pyrolysis of Hazardous Liquids and Gaseous Waste
3.2.3 Plasma Treatment of Hazardous Solid Waste Materials
3.2.4 Plasma Treatment of Asbestos-Containing Residues
3.3 Plasma Destruction of Ozone-Depleting Substances
3.3.1 RF Induction Plasma Route by Clean Japan Center
3.3.2 PLASCON Process, by CSRIO and SRL, Australia
3.4 Plasma Recovery of Valuable Content
3.4.1 Recovery of Platinum Group Metals
3.4.2 Recovery of Aluminum from Al-Dross
3.4.3 Recovery of Copper from Printed Circuit Boards
3.5 Plasma Treatment of Medical Waste
3.6 Plasma Gasification of Spent Tires
4 Plasma Treatment of Low-Level Radioactive Waste
4.1 Basic Concepts
4.2 Retech Processes
4.3 Zwilag Process
4.4 Industrial-Scale ``Pluton´´ Plant
5 Summary and Conclusions
6 Nomenclature
6.1 Latin Alphabet
6.2 Greek Alphabet
References
Part V: Thermodynamic, Transport, and Radiation Properties of Thermal Plasmas
31 Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Gases over the Temperature Range 300-30,000 K
1 Introduction
2 Calculation Method
2.1 Thermodynamic Properties
2.2 Transport Properties
2.3 Composition of Gaseous Mixtures
3 Thermodynamic and Transport Properties
4 Graphical Database of Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Pure Gases and their Mixtures
4.1 Enthalpy and Specific Heat of Pure Gases and Their Mixtures
4.2 Viscosity of Pure Gases and Their Mixtures
4.3 Thermal Conductivity of Pure Gases and Their Mixtures
4.4 Electrical Conductivity of Pure Gases and Their Mixtures
4.5 Effect of Metal Vapors on Thermodynamic and Transport Properties
4.5.1 Effect of Metal Vapors on Specific Heat of Pure Gases
4.5.2 Effect of Metal Vapors on Viscosity of Pure Gases
4.5.3 Effect of Metal Vapors on Thermal Conductivity of Pure Gases
4.5.4 Effect of Metal Vapors on Electrical Conductivity of Pure Gases
4.5.5 Combined Ordinary Diffusion Coefficients of Metal Vapors in Argon
5 Tabulated Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Pure Gases at 100 kPa
6 Tabulated Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Argon-Hydrogen Mixtures at 100 kPa
7 Tabulated Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Gas-Metal Vapor Mixtures at Atmospheric Pressure, 101.3 kPa
7.1 Mass Density of Argon-Metal Vapor Mixtures at 101.3 kPa
7.2 Specific Heat of Argon-Metal Vapor Mixtures at 101.3 kPa
7.3 Viscosity of Argon-Metal Vapor Mixtures at 101.3 kPa
7.4 Thermal Conductivity of Argon-Metal Vapor Mixtures at 101.3 kPa
7.5 Electrical Conductivity of Argon-Metal Vapor Mixtures at 101.3 kPa
7.6 Combined Ordinary Diffusion Coefficients of Argon-Metal Vapor Mixtures at Atmospheric Pressure, 101.3 kPa
8 Nomenclature
8.1 Latin Alphabet
8.2 Greek Alphabet
References
32 Radiation Properties of Gases over the Temperature Range 300-30,000 K
1 Introduction
2 Calculation Method
3 Radiation Property Data Base
4 Graphical Data Base of Radiation Properties of Pure Gases and Their Mixtures
4.1 Net Emission Coefficient of Pure Gases and Their Mixtures at 100 kPa
4.2 Effect of Metal Vapors on Radiation Properties of Pure Gases and Their Mixtures
5 Tabulated Radiation Properties of Pure Ar and Ar-Metal Vapor Mixtures at Atmospheric Pressure, 101.3 kPa
5.1 NEC for Pure Argon as Function of Temperature and Rp
5.2 NEC for Ar-Al Mixtures (Mass Proportions) as Function of Temperature, Composition, and Rp
5.3 NEC for Ar-Cu Mixtures (Mass Proportions) as Function of Temperature, Composition, and Rp
5.4 NEC for Ar-Fe Mixtures (Mass Proportions) as Function of Temperature, Composition, and Rp
6 Nomenclature
6.1 Latin Alphabet
6.2 Greek Alphabet
References
Index