Handbook of Indoor Air Quality

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Editors
Section Editors
About the Associate Editors
List of Reviewers
Contributors
Part I: Introduction to Indoor Air Quality
1 History and Perspective on Indoor Air Quality Research
Introduction
Early Stage Development Before 1970s
Modern Developments Since the 1970s
Indoor Air Conferences
The Academy of ISIAQ Fellows
International Society of Indoor Air Quality and Climate (ISIAQ)
Indoor Air journal, the Official Journal of ISIAQ
Representative Events or Works on Indoor Air Quality Field in the Modern Stage Since the 1970s
Quantitative Analysis of the General Information in Web of Science
The Number of Indoor Air Quality-Related Papers has Increased Rapidly Since 1990
Number of Papers Related to Specific Indoor Air Pollutants Since 1990
International Journals That Have Published the Most Indoor Air-Related Papers
Institutions That Published the Most Indoor Air-Related Papers
Averaged Citations Per Paper of the Ten Institutions Publishing the Most Indoor Air Quality Papers
On the Research Advances Since 2001
Perspectives on Indoor Air Quality Research Related to Chemicals
Conclusions
Appendix
References
Part II: Indoor Air Chemicals
2 Very Volatile Organic Compounds (VVOCs)
Introduction
Properties and Hazards of Formaldehyde
Properties
Hazards
Usages and Pollution Levels of Formaldehyde
Methods for the Determination of Formaldehyde
Standard Test Methods
Perforator Method
Flask Method
Desiccator Method
Gas Analysis Method
Analysis of Formaldehyde
Spectrophotometric Method
Chromatographic Method
Sensors
Emission Models of Formaldehyde
Short-Term Emission Models
Long-Term Emission Model
Measurement of Key Emission Parameters of Formaldehyde
Introduction of Measurement Methods for the Key Emission Parameters
Introduction of the C-History Method
Impact of Environmental Factors on Formaldehyde Emissions
Impact of Temperature on C0
Impact of Temperature on Dm
Impact of Temperature on K
Impact of Relative Humidity
Combined Effect of Temperature and Humidity on the Emission Rate
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
3 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
Introduction
Properties and Hazards of VOCs
Classes of VOCs
Properties of VOCs
Hazards
Typical Indoor VOCs
Benzene
General Description
Indoor Sources
Hazards
Guidelines
Toluene
General Description
Indoor Sources
Hazards
Guidelines
Xylene
General Description
Indoor Sources
Hazards
Guidelines
Measurement Methods
Gas Chromatography
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
Emission Models for VOCs
Characteristic Emission Parameters
Model for Prediction of Indoor VOC Concentration
Statistical Models
First-Order Decay Model
Double Exponential Model
Second-Order Decay Model
The nth-Order Decay Model
Mass Transfer Models
Interfacial Mass Transfer Models
Internal Diffusion Mass Transfer Models
Other Mass Transfer Related Models
Influential Factors of VOCs Emission
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
4 Semi-volatile Organic Compounds (SVOCs)
Introduction
Phthalate Esters (PAEs) and Their Alternatives
Brominated Flame Retardants (BFRs)
Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs)
Hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs)
Organophosphorus Flame Retardants (OPFRs)
Per- and Polyfluorinated Alkyl Substances (PFAS)
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
5 Fragranced Consumer Products as Sources
Introduction
Measurement Methods and Techniques
Measurement of VOCs Emitted from Consumer Products
Overview
Details of Headspace Analysis Techniques
Measurement of VOCs in Chamber Studies
Overview
Details of Chamber Study Techniques
Measurement of VOCs Within Indoor Environments
Overview
Details of VOC Sampling Techniques
Large Population-Based IAQ Studies
VOCs Within Indoor Environments
Product Ingredients, Emissions, and Disclosure
Volatile Ingredients and Disclosure
Volatile Ingredients Emitted
Relations Between Emissions and Listed Ingredients
Emissions Evaluated in Chamber Studies
VOCs from Product Use Indoors
Population-Based Studies
Indoor Air Environments at a University
Improving Indoor Air Environments
Fragrance-Free Policies and Practices
Switching to Fragrance-Free Products
Removing Fragranced Products
Preferences for Fragrance-free Environments
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
6 Appliances for Cooking, Heating, and Other Energy Services
Introduction
Energy Sources and Energy Services
Fuels
Energy Services
Energy and End Use Data
Physical Appliances
Cooking Appliances
Space Heating Appliances
Water Heating Appliances
Lighting Appliances
Other Appliances
Appliance Performance Affecting Indoor Air
Efficiency and Energy Intensity
Emission Factors and Emission Rates
Capture and Unintended Releases
Characteristics of Emissions
Emission Factors
Particle Size Distributions
Chemical Composition of Particles
Prospects for Reducing Exposure
Improved Combustion and Appliances
Venting and Ventilation
Fuel Processing
Fuel Switching
Alternative Service Provision
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
7 Vaping and Secondhand Exposure
Introduction
Particulate Matter in E-Cig Aerosols
Particle Concentration and Size Distribution
Factors Affecting Indoor E-Cig Particle Concentrations
E-Cig
Vaping
Indoor Environment
Effects of Proximity on SHV Aerosols
Vaping in a Laboratory Room
Vaping in Vape Shops
Transport of SHV Aerosols in Multiunit Indoor Environment
Laboratory Multiunit Setting
Vape Shops and Neighboring Indoor Spaces
Mitigation of SHV Aerosol Exposure in a Multiunit Setting
Chemical Composition of E-Cig Aerosols
Chemical Profiles of E-Cig Aerosols
Factors Affecting Chemical Compositions
Thirdhand Exposure
Health Effects
In Vivo and In Vitro Studies
Human Studies: Active Exposure to E-Cig Aerosols
Respiratory Effects
Cardiovascular Effects
Human Studies: Passive Exposure to SHV Aerosols
Conclusions
References
Part III: Indoor Air Particles
8 Introduction to Particles in Indoor Air
Introduction
Sources
Primary
Cooking
Heating
Cleaning
Lifestyle
Infiltration of Ambient Aerosol
Secondary
Particle Compositions
Nonvolatile Species
Semi-Volatile Species
Indoor Particle Dynamics
Infiltration
Deposition
Resuspension
Conclusions
References
9 Introduction to Aerosol Dynamics
Introduction
Basics of Gas Behavior
Background
Properties of Gases
Kinetic Theory of Gases
Pressure
Mean Velocity
Mean Free Path
Diffusion
Viscosity
Macroscopic Properties of Gases
Streamlines
Boundary Layers
Gas Flow Through a Tube
Reynolds Number
Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Flow Stagnation
Flow Separation
Particle Motion in Air
Background
Drag
Newtonian Drag
Stokes Law
Particle Mobility
Slip Correction
Particle Shape
Tranquil and Stirred Settling
Definition of Particle Diameter: Aerodynamic Diameter
Particle Motion Under Acceleration
Relaxation Time
Stopping Distance
Curvilinear Motion
Brownian Motion
Diffusion
Mean Particle Velocity
Mean Free Path
Relative Deposition Velocities
Conclusions
Nomenclature (Note that in some cases a symbol may be used to denote different values in different contexts. All equations lis...
References
10 Impact of Outdoor Particles on Indoor Air
Introduction
Penetration Factor
Measurement
Methods in Real Buildings
Regression Approach
Equilibrium Concentration Approach
Error Analysis Approach
Laboratory Methods
Data Analysis
Modeling
Infiltration Factor
Measurement Methods
Regression Approach
Equilibrium Approach
Tracer Element Approach
Modeling Methods
Data Analysis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
11 Deposition
Introduction
Bulk Airflow and Interaction with Surfaces
Turbulent Nature of Indoor Air Flow
Recent Advances in Understanding Turbulence
Comparison of Brownian and Turbulent Diffusion by Means of Particle Approach
Analytic Solution of the Turbulent Wall Deposition
Improvements in the Wall Deposition Model
Dimensional Analysis in Deposition Rate Formulas
Fractal Nature of Turbulence
Applications
Boundary Layer Thickness
Eddy Diffusivity
Energy Dissipation
Comparison of Measured Data
Comparison of Experimental Configurations
Challenges in Understanding Principles of Particle: Surface Interaction
Fundamental Problems
Technical Problems
Advice
Conclusions
References
12 Resuspension
Introduction
Definitions
Bulk Aerosol Resuspension Measurement and Modeling
Typical Bulk Aerosol Resuspension Experiments
Two-Compartment Material Balance Model
Resuspension Emission Rate Estimates
Resuspension Fraction Estimates
Particle Surface Loading
Dust Components of Concern
Human-Generated Particle Emissions
Resuspension by Crawling Infants
Uniform Mixing Assumption
Single-Particle Resuspension Measurement and Modeling
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
13 Interaction Between Gas-Phase Pollutants and Particles
Introduction
Interaction Between Gas-Phase Pollutants and Airborne Particles
Overview
Equilibrium Models
Adsorption-Based Approach for Predicting Kp
Absorption-Based Approach for Predicting Kp
Poly-Parameter Approach for Predicting Kp
Problems
Dynamic Models
Diffusion-Based Model
Simplified Model Based on Lumped Parameter Method
Dynamic Model Involving Intraparticle Reaction of SVOCs
Adsorption-Based Model
Methods for Measuring/Estimating Key Parameters
Particle-Gas Partition Coefficient (Kp)
Mass Accommodation Coefficient of SVOCs on Particle Surface (α)
Intraparticle Diffusion Coefficient of SVOCs (D)
Deposition Loss Rate Coefficient of Airborne Particles (β)
Interaction Between Gas-Phase Pollutants and Settled Dust
Overall
Equilibrium Model
Dynamic Models
Model Based on Aerosol Dynamics
Diffusion-Based Model
Dust-Gas Partition Coefficient (Kd)
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
14 Cooking Aerosol
Introduction
Methods
Frying Process
Hydrolysis
Oxidation
Thermal Alteration
Contribution of Food in the Frying Chemistry
Primary Organic Aerosol (POA)
Secondary Organic Aerosol (SOA)
Controlled Studies
Cooking Style/Method/Habit
Energy Source
Cooking Pan
Cooking Oil
Additives
Food
Temperature
Surface Area of the Pan/Position of the Pan on a Stove
Particle Loss (Coagulation, Ventilation, and Deposition)
Particle Morphology
Citizen Science
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Part IV: Measurement and Evaluation
15 Sampling and Analysis of VVOCs and VOCs in Indoor Air
Introduction
Sampling and Analysis of VVOCs
Sampling
Sampling Treatment
Sample Analysis
Sampling and Analysis of VOCs
Sampling
Active Sampling
Passive Sampling
Whole-Air Sampling
Solid-Phase Microextraction
Sampling Treatment
Sample Analysis
Conclusion
References
16 Sampling and Analysis of Semi-volatile Organic Compounds (SVOCs) in Indoor Environments
Introduction
Sampling
Passive Air Sampling
Active Air Sampling
Dust and Surface Sampling
Sample Pretreatment
Solvent Extraction
Soxhlet Extraction
Accelerated Solvent Extraction (ASE)
Ultrasonication Extraction (USE)
Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE)
Cleanup
Concentration
Thermal Desorption (TD)
Chemical Analysis
Chromatography
Mass Spectrometry (MS)
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
17 Passive Samplers for Indoor Gaseous Pollutants
Introduction
Overview of Passive Samplers
Representative Passive Samplers
Passive Sampling Theory
Optimal Design of Passive Samplers
Method Principle
Illustration of Optimization Outputs
Application and Discussions
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
18 Real-Time Monitoring of Indoor Organic Compounds
Introduction
Real-Time Monitoring of Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde Multimode Monitor
MIRA Pico Formaldehyde Analyzer
Proton-Transfer-Reaction Mass Spectrometry and Other CIMS
Basics of PTR-MS and Other CIMS
Application on Real-Time Monitoring of Indoor Air
Technical Considerations of CIMS Deployment in the Indoor Environment
Data Analysis Providing New Scientific Understanding
Automated GC
Conclusions
References
19 Measuring Particle Concentrations and Composition in Indoor Air
Introduction
Particles Mass Measurements
Measurement Methods
Fixed Location Samplers
Portable and/or Personal Samplers
PM Composition Measurements
Analytical Strategy
Light Absorption
Elemental Analyses
Analysis of Water-Soluble Ions
Inductively Coupled Plasma Methods
Organic and Elemental Carbon
Organic Compound Analysis
PM Source Identification and Apportionment
Continuous PM Monitors
Particle Monitors
Aerodynamic Particle Sizers
Optical Particle Monitors
Semicontinous Composition Measurements
Low-Cost Monitors
Ultrafine Particles
Health Effects
Measurement Methods
Condensation Particle Counters
Particle Size Distributions
``1-nm´´ Instruments
UFP Emission Sources
Gas Burning Appliance Emissions
Electric Stove Emissions
Electric Motors
Other Electric Appliances
Candle Burning
Source Identification and Apportionment
Emission Rates
Concluding Note
Cross-References
References
20 Visualization and Measurement of Indoor Airflow by Color Sequence Enhanced Particle Streak Velocimetry
Introduction
Theory and Limitations of Traditional PSV
Theory of Traditional PSV
Limitations of Traditional PSV
Theory and Implementation of CSPSV
Color Sequence Illumination System
Operational Procedure of CSPSV
Quad-View CSPSV
Image Processing and Stereo Correspondence Algorithm
Digital Image Processing
Rectification-Based Sparse Stereo Correspondence
Accuracy Verification
Experimental Setup of Rotating Board Test
Accuracy Verification on Rotating Board
Experimental Setup in the Wind Tunnel
Verification with HWA
Applications and Results
Vortex Flow Test
Airflow Pattern Induced by Ceiling Fan
Chamber Setup
Imaging Settings
Results
Airflow Pattern Induced by Mixing Ventilation and AFN
Flow Pattern of MV
Flow Pattern of Cases with AFN
Conclusions
References
21 Measurements of Perceived Indoor Air Quality
Introduction
Measurements of Perceived Air Quality (PAQ)
Untrained Panels and Acceptability Scale
Trained Panels and Decipol Scale
Comparison of Assessments Made by Trained and Untrained Panels
Applications - Estimation of Sensory Pollution Load
Measurements of Odor Intensity
Applications - Odor Persistency
Procedural Aspects of Sensory Measurements of Perceived Air Quality
Selection of Human Observers (Panelists) for Sensory Measurements
Adaptation
Impact of Temperature and Relative Humidity
Quantification of Odor Pollution Sources in Buildings
Nonsensory Analysis of Odorant Concentration in the Air
Gas Chromatography-Olfactometry-Mass Spectrometry (GC-O-MS)
Olfactometry
Olfactometry Analysis for Determining the Odorant Detection Threshold (Test D)
Dynamic Olfactometry - Analysis of Odor Concentration
Calibration of an Olfactometer
Selection of Panelists for Performing Measurements Using Dynamic Olfactometry
Indirect Olfactometry
Direct Olfactometry
Conclusions
References
Part V: Source/Sink Characteristics
22 Source/Sink Characteristics of VVOCs and VOCs
Introduction
Model Development for Describing Source/Sink Processes
Empirical Models
Mass-Transfer Models
Source/Sink Models for Dry Building Materials
Source/Sink Models for Wet Coating Materials
Measurement Methods for VVOC/VOC Characteristic Parameters
Experimental Techniques for Measuring Model Parameters
The Initial Emittable Concentration, C0
The Diffusion Coefficient, D
The Partition Coefficient, K
Rapid and Accurate Measurement Method
Correlations Between Model Parameters and Physical/Chemical Properties
The Initial Emittable Concentration, C0
The Diffusion Coefficient, D
The Partition Coefficient, K
Dimensionless Analysis of Characteristic Parameters
Source Control to Reduce the VVOC/VOC Emissions
Influencing Factors on VVOC/VOC Characteristic Parameters
The Initial Emittable Concentration, C0
The Diffusion Coefficient, D
The Partition Coefficient, K
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
23 Source/Sink Characteristics of SVOCs
Introduction
SVOC Emissions from Source Materials
Emission Model
Existing Methods for Measuring Key Emission Parameter (y0)
CLIMPAQ and FLEC Chamber Methods
Sandwich-like Chamber Method
Passive Flux Sampler (PFS) Method
SPME-Based Sealed Chamber Method
Other Methods
Equilibrium Relationship Between Source Materials and Air
Relationship Between y0 and Temperature
Relationship Between y0, SVOC Weight Fraction, and Vapor Pressure
Sorption by Sink Materials
Sorption Processes and Models
Impermeable Surfaces
Permeable Surfaces
Existing Methods for Measuring Key Sorption Parameters (Ks and D)
Ventilated Chamber Method
Sealed Chamber Method
Prediction of the Key Sorption Parameters
Gas/Surface Partition Coefficient (Ks)
Diffusion Coefficient (D)
Relationship Between Ks and Temperature, Surface Roughness, Vapor Pressure, and Other Potential Impact Factors
Sorption to Particles/Dust
Interaction Between Gas-Phase SVOCs and Suspended Particles
The Equilibrium Model
The Dynamic Model
Role of Aerosols in Enhancing SVOC Flux Between Air and Indoor Surfaces
Existing Methods for Measuring Key Sorption Parameter (Kp)
Existing Methods Used in Atmospheric Field (Equilibrium Model)
Sandwich-like Chamber Method
Tube Chamber
Prediction of the Key Sorption Parameter (Kp)
Junge-Pankow Method: Kp-Ps Relationship and Kp-KOA Relationship
Pp-LFER Method
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
24 Reference Materials for Building Product Emission Characterization
Introduction
Why Test Material Emissions?
What Chemicals are Analyzed in Emission Testing?
How Does Emission Testing Work?
Dynamic Emission Test System Components
Dynamic Emission Testing Variability
Reference Materials
Definitions
Types of Reference Materials
True Values, Traceability and Consensus Approaches
Types of Emission Testing Reference Materials
Building Product Reference Materials Used in Emission Testing
Designed Reference Materials Used in Emission Testing
Drying or Curing Reference Material
Film Reference Material
TPU Reference Material
LiFE Reference Material
Temperature-Controlled Diffusive Evaporator
Inter-laboratory Proficiency Testing Studies of Reference Materials
Reference Material Studies
Inter-laboratory Summary
Uncertainties in Emission Testing When Using Reference Materials
Reference Material Variability
Producibility
Homogeneity
Stability
Emission Test System Variability
Temperature
Relative Humidity
Air Change Rate
Chamber Impacts
Summary
Analytical Measurement Variability
Analytical Equipment
Sampling Uncertainty
Standards Bias
Inter-laboratory Study Procedure Variability
Conclusions
References
25 Predicting VOC and SVOC Concentrations in Complex Indoor Environments
Introduction
Predicting VOC Concentrations in Real Indoor Environments
VOC Emission/Sorption from Multiple Sources/Sinks in Different Indoor Settings
Sink-Diffusion Model in Multi-Sink Residential Rooms
Physics-Based Emission Model in Multi-Source In-Cabin Environments
VOC Emission from Occupants Due to the Use of Personal Care Products
Background
Model for Predicting cVMS Emissions
Determination of Key Parameters in the Model
Validation of the Physics-Based Model
Reactions of Ozone with Squalene in Realistic Indoor Environments
Background
Models for Predicting Ozone/Squalene Reactions
Validation of the Chemical-Physical Model with Test Data in a House
Predicting SVOC Concentrations in Complex Indoor Environments
Two Types of Models for Predicting the Fate and Transport of SVOCs in Real Indoor Environments
Estimating Partition Coefficients of SVOCs Between the Gas Phase, Airborne Particles, Settled Dust, and Surfaces
Challenge to Accurate Prediction of Indoor SVOC Concentration in Complex Indoor Environment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Part VI: Indoor Chemistry
26 Framing Indoor Chemistry Topics
Introduction
Comparing Chemistry Occurring Indoors and Outdoors
Indoor Gas-Phase Chemistry
Indoor Photochemistry
Indoor Surface Chemistry
Occupant Emissions and Chemistry
Analytical Tools in Indoor Chemistry
Indoor Chemistry Modeling of Gas-, Particle-, and Surface-Phase Processes
Conclusion
27 Indoor Air Quality Through the Lens of Outdoor Atmospheric Chemistry
Introduction
Primary Chemical Sources
Reactivity
Partitioning
Impact of Dynamics on Chemistry
Working Toward Solutions
Cross-References
References
28 Indoor Gas-Phase Chemistry
Introduction
Gas-Phase Chemistry
Reactions of Ozone
Reactions of the Hydroxyl Radical
Reactions of the Nitrate Radical
Reactions of the Chlorine Radical
Comparing Indoor Oxidants
Role of Gas-Phase Chemistry in Particle Formation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
29 Indoor Photochemistry
Introduction to Photochemistry
Absorption Cross Section and Photolysis Quantum Yield
Photon Flux
Different Considerations for Condensed Phase and Heterogeneous Photochemistry
Concentration and Steady-State Concentration
Outdoor Photochemistry
Overview of Indoor Photochemistry
Important Gas Phase Photochemical Reactions Indoors
Factors Controlling Gas Phase Indoor Photochemistry
Solar Photon Flux
Photon Flux from Light Bulbs
Indoor Reactant Concentrations and Oxidant Steady-State Concentrations
Condensed Phase and Heterogeneous Indoor Photochemistry
Photochemical Formation of Oxidants on Painted Surfaces
Photochemistry in Dust and on Indoor Surface Films
Photochemistry in Indoor Aqueous Phases
Current Research
Measurements of Photochemically Generated Species
Photon Flux Measurements and Predictions
Models
Conclusions and Future Directions
References
30 Indoor Surface Chemistry
Introduction
Surfaces and Chemical Transformations
Indoor Surfaces
Ozone Initiated Chemistry
Nitrogen Oxides
Chlorine Chemistry
Acid-Base Chemistry
Hydrolysis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
31 Occupant Emissions and Chemistry
Introduction
Primary Emissions from Humans
Breath Emissions
Skin Emissions
Occupant-Related Chemical Transformations
Secondary Organic Aerosols
Modifying Factors
Role of Microbial Population
Effects on Perceived Air Quality
Health Effects of Human Emissions
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
32 Analytical Tools in Indoor Chemistry
Introduction
Measurement Principles
Instrumental Analysis
Measurement Strategies
Bulk Versus Compound-Specific Measurement
Off-Line Versus On-Line Measurements
Chemical Versus Physical Analysis
Low Cost Sensors Versus Research Instrumentation
Analytical Chemistry Approaches
On-Line Measurement of Gases
Inert Gases
Reactive Gases
Oxidants
Inorganic Trace Gases
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
On-Line Measurement of Particles
Particle Size Distributions
Chemical Measurement Techniques
Bulk Aerosol Composition Measurements
Speciated Aerosol Composition Measurements
Black Carbon
Other Particle Measurements
New Frontiers
Conclusion
References
33 Indoor Chemistry Modeling of Gas-, Particle-, and Surface-Phase Processes
Introduction
Box Model for Indoor Air Pollutants
Modeling Gas-Phase Chemistry
General Gas-Phase Chemistry Concentration Balance
Simulating Important Gas-Phase Chemical Reactions
Modeling Indoor Particulate Matter Concentrations
General Particulate Matter Concentration Balance
Simulating Indoor Secondary Organic Aerosol
Simulating Indoor Organic Aerosol
Simulating Indoor Inorganic Aerosol
Surface Chemistry Modeling
Simulating Surface Chemistry Byproduct Formation
Modeling Transport Within Boundary Layer
Modeling Surface Processes
Modeling Skin Chemistry Example
References
Part VII: Human Exposure to Indoor Pollutants
34 Fundamentals of Exposure Science
Introduction
What Is Exposure Science?
Link Between Exposure Science and Indoor Air Quality, Toxicology, and Epidemiology
Exposure Definitions
Basic Exposure Model
Direct Versus Indirect Exposure Assessment
Direct Exposure Assessment (Measurement)
Contributions from Indoor Sources
Contribution from Ambient Pollution
Direct Measurement Campaigns
Field Campaigns
Sensor Networks
Personal (Breathing Zone)
Indirect Exposure Assessment (Modeling)
Contribution of Ambient Pollution to Indoor Concentrations
Land-Use Regression Modeling
Air Quality Modeling
Statistical Modeling
Intake Fraction
Conclusions
References
35 Exposure Routes and Types of Exposure
Introduction
Sources of Indoor Air Exposure
Routes of Exposure
Inhalation Exposure
Dermal Exposure
Non-dietary and Indirect Ingestion Exposure
Biological Agents
Examples of Common Toxicants in Indoor Air
Penetrations of Vapors from Outside
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
Formaldehyde
Radon
Semi-volatile Organic Compounds (SVOCs)
Role of House Dust
Indoor Chemistry
Consumer Goods and Personal Exposures
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
36 Role of Clothing in Exposure to Indoor Pollutants
Introduction
Exposures to Chemicals
Evidence of Clothing-Associated Exposure to Chemicals
Clothing-Associated Chemicals in Skin, Blood, and Urine
Influence of Clothing on Dermal Uptake of Airborne Chemicals
Health Effects as Evidence of Exposure
Occurrence, Persistence, and Accumulation of Chemicals in Clothing
Chemicals Present at Time of Purchase
Chemicals Acquired Post-Purchase
Mechanisms, Quantification, and Prediction of Exposure and Transfer of Chemicals
Dermal Transfer and Absorption
Inhalation
Ingestion
Exposures to Particles
Clothing-Associated Exposures to Biotic and Abiotic Particles
Allergens
Pathogenic Microbes
Nanomaterials Associated with Clothing Additives
Para-occupational Exposures
Personal Cloud
Toward Quantifying Clothing-Mediated Particle Exposures
Factors Affecting Clothing-Mediated Particle Exposures
Conclusions
References
37 Time-Activity Patterns
Introduction
Survey Method
Questionnaire Method
Global Positioning System Method
Videotaping Method
Sensors Method
Mobile Phone Method
Time-Activity Patterns Survey
China
Adults
Children
USA
California Activity Pattern Survey (1987-1988)
Indoor Activity Time of Various Microenvironments
Smoking and Secondhand Smoke Contact Time
Kitchen Smoke Contact Time
Other Smoke Contact Time
Heating Time
California Children´s Activity Patterns Survey (1989-1990)
The National Human Activity Pattern Survey
Canada
Korea
The Time Use Survey
Children´s Time-Activity Patterns Survey
Europe
Africa
Conclusion
References
38 A Modular Mechanistic Framework for Assessing Human Exposure to Indoor Chemicals
Introduction
A Modular Mechanistic Framework for Rapid Modeling of Indoor Exposure
General Description of the Framework
Assumptions
Modeling and Parameterization
Example 1: Di-n-Butyl Phthalate (DnBP) in Vinyl Flooring
Extension of Example 1: Considering the Impact of Clothing
Example 2: Tris(2-Chloroethyl) Phosphate (TCEP) in Smartphone Casing
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Part VIII: Health Effects and Health Risk Assessment
39 The Health Effects of Indoor Air Pollution
Introduction
Indoor Exposures
Secondhand Smoke Exposure
Introduction
Sources and Exposure
Risk
Infant and Childhood Adverse Health Effects Causally Linked to SHS Exposure
Adult Adverse Health Effects Causally Linked to SHS Exposure
Mitigation/Management
Carbon Monoxide
Introduction
Sources and Exposures
Risks
Mitigation/Management
Household Air Pollution
Introduction
Sources and Exposure
Risk
Health Effects Related to HAP
Mitigation/Management
Radon
Introduction
Sources and Exposure
Risks
Management
Volatile and Semi-Volatile Compounds
Introduction
Sources and Exposure
Risks
Bioaerosols
Introduction
Sources and Exposure
Risk
Mitigation/Management
Respiratory Infections
Introduction
Risks
Management
Specific Diseases Associated with Indoor Air Quality
Overview
Multiple Chemical Sensitivity
Introduction
Etiology
Clinical and Epidemiological Picture
Management
Sick Building Syndrome
Introduction
Etiology
Clinical Picture
Management
Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis
Conclusions
References
40 Epidemiology for Indoor Air Quality Problems
Introduction
Conventional Outcome Measures in Epidemiological Studies of Indoor Air Pollution
Mortality, Morbidity, and Prevalence
Subclinical Outcome Measures
Outcome Measures for Respiratory System
Outcome Measures for Cardiovascular Health
Outcome Measures for Other Health Issues
Classification of Adverse Health Effects of Indoor Air Pollution
Short-Term Health Effects
Effects on Respiratory System
Effects on the Cardiovascular System
Effects on Other Systems
Long-Term Health Effects
Effects on the Respiratory System
Effects on the Cardiovascular System
Effects on Other Systems
Specific Examples
Environmental Tobacco Smoke
Chemical Composition and Exposure Evaluation
Health Effects
Lung cancer
Other Cancers
Non-cancer Respiratory Health Effects
Cardiovascular Effects
Other Health Effects
Guidelines
Radon
Health Effects
Lung Cancer
Other Diseases
Guidelines
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
Health Effects
Guidelines
Formaldehyde and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
Health Effects
Cancer
Respiratory Health
Guidelines
Conclusions and Outlook
References
41 Animal Tests to Determine the Health Risks of Indoor Air Pollutants
Introduction
Definition of Animal Test
A Brief History of Animal Test
Controversy and Principles
Indoor Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Pollution
Formaldehyde and Toxic Effects
Health Impacts on the Respiratory System
Health Impacts on the Nervous System
Health Impacts on the Hematopoietic System
Health Impacts on the Reproductive System
Health Impact on Intestinal Microorganisms
Benzene and Toxic Effects
Indoor Semi-Volatile Organic Compound (SVOC) Pollution
Effects of PAEs on the Immune System
Effects of PAEs on the Nervous System
Effects of PAEs on the Reproductive System
Effects of PAEs on Diabetes
Radon and its Toxic Effects
The Effects of Radon on the Respiratory System
Other Health Effects of Radon
Indoor Particulate Matter Pollution
The Effect of PM2.5 on the Respiratory System
Effect of PM2.5 on the Immune System
Effects of PM2.5 on the Cardiovascular System
Effects of PM2.5 on the Reproductive System
Other Toxic Effects of PM2.5
Limitations of and Alternatives to Animal Testing
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
42 Application of Biomarkers in Assessing Health Risk of Indoor Air Pollutants
Introduction
Application of Biomarkers in Assessing Health Risks of the Respiratory System
The Structure and Function of the Respiratory System
Indoor Air Pollution Affects Respiratory Health
Biomarkers of Respiratory Health Effects of Indoor Air Pollution
Fractional Exhaled Nitric Oxide (FeNO)
Exhaled Breath Condensate (EBC)
Malondialdehyde in Exhaled Breath Condensate
The Sum of EBC Nitrite and Nitrate (EBCNN)
Lung Function Parameters
Application of Biomarkers in Assessing Health Risks of the Cardiovascular System
The Structure and Function of the Cardiovascular System
Indoor Air Pollution Affects Cardiovascular Health
Biomarkers of Cardiovascular Health Effects of Indoor Air Pollution
Cardiac Autonomic Function
Vascular Function
Reactive Hyperemia Index (RHI)
Microvascular Function (MVF)
Pulse Wave Velocity (PWV)
Augmentation Index (AI)
Blood Pressure
Application of Biomarkers in Assessing Health Risks of the Hematologic System
The Structure and Function of the Hematologic System
Indoor Air Pollution Affects Hematologic Health
Biomarkers of Hematologic Health Effects of Indoor Air Pollution
Blood-Related Parameters
Hemoglobin (Hb)
Red Blood Cells (RBC)
White Blood Cells (WBC)
Platelet Count
Blood Coagulation Biomarkers
Fibrinogen
Soluble P-Selectin (sP-Selectin)
Von Willebrand Factor (vWF)
Soluble CD40 Ligand (sCD40L)
Application of Biomarkers in Assessing Systemic Inflammation and Oxidative Stress
Biomarkers of Systemic Inflammation of Indoor Air Pollution
C-Reactive Protein (CRP) and High-Sensitivity CRP (hsCRP)
Inflammatory Cytokines
Myeloperoxidase (MPO)
Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 (MCP-1)
Biomarkers of Oxidative Stress in Relation to Indoor Air Pollution
Iso-Prostaglandin F2α (8-isoPGF2α)
Malondialdehyde (MDA)
Oxidized Low-Density Lipoprotein (Ox-LDL)
Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) and Glutathione Peroxidase 1 (GPx1)
Application of Biomarkers in Assessing Health Risks of the Immune System
Composition and Function of the Immune System
Health Effect on the Immune System of Indoor Air Pollution
Biomarkers in Assessing Health Risks of the Immune System
Immune Cells
Lymphocytes
Dendritic Cells
Immunoglobulin
Cytokines
DNA Methylation as Epigenetic Biomarkers
MicroRNA
Salivary Lysozyme
Matrix Metalloproteinase-9
Application of Biomarkers in Assessing Health Risks of the Reproductive System
The Structure and Function of the Reproductive System
Health Effect on the Reproductive System of Indoor Air Pollution
Biomarkers in Assessing Health Risks of the Reproductive System
Semen Parameter
Oocyte
Reproductive Hormones
DNA Damage
DNA Methylation
Application of Biomarkers in Assessing Health Risks of Other Physiologic Systems
Kidneys
Thyroid
Metabolic System
Cognitive Function
Conclusion
References
43 The Full Chain Model: Linking Chemical Exposure from Indoor Sources to Human Health Effects
Introduction
The Full Chain Model
The SELMA Study
Chemical Exposure
Airway Outcomes
Applying SELMA Data to the Full Chain Model
Environmental Exposure
Human Exposure
Phthalate Metabolites in Urine
Phthalate Metabolites in Urine and PVC Flooring
Phthalates in Urine and Dust
Total Daily External Phthalate Exposure (Intake)
Intake from Dust and Contribution to Total Intake
Health Effects
Prenatal Phthalate Exposure
Phthalates in Dust
Relevance of the Results
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
44 Disease Burden of Indoor Air Pollution
Introduction
Global Burden of Disease Studies (GBD)
Risk Assessment (RA)
Environmental Burden of Disease (EBD)
Health Impact Assessment (HIA)
Methods
Population Attributable Fraction (PAF)
Linking with Toxicological Databases
Current Estimates of Indoor Air Burden of Disease
European EBoDE Study
Stressor Selection
Exposure Assessment
Exposure-Response Relationship Modelling
Indoor Specific Follow-Up in the HealthVent Study
Indoor Air Pollution and Associated Socio-economic Costs in France
Pollutants Considered for the Evaluation
Evaluation of Yearly Mortality
Evaluation of Yearly Morbidity
Socio-economic Cost Evaluation
Limitations and Conclusions
Disease Burden of Indoor Air Pollutants in China
Indoor Exposure Assessment
Associations Between IAPs and Health Outcomes
Disease Burden Attributable to Indoor Air Pollutants in China
Estimation of IAP-BD in China
Comparison of IAP-BD Among Countries
Limitations and Future Study
Discussion
Summary
References
Part IX: Indoor Air Quality and Cognitive Performance
45 Metrics and Methods (Performance Indicators, Methods, and Measurement)
Introduction
The Metrics That Might Predict Productivity
Health
Comfort
Self-Estimated Productivity
Component Skills
Field Validation
Research Strategy for Cost-Benefit Analysis of IEQ
Experimental Strategy
Strategy When Selecting Sample Size
Significance of an Experiment
Validity of an Experiment
Interpretation in Terms of an Environmental Halo Effect
The Ethics of Experimental Research on Human Subjects
Health Risk, Pain, and Discomfort
Invasion of Privacy
Social Pressure to Participate
Experiments That Do Not Require ERB Approval
Documenting the Argument
Strategy for Dealing with Missing Data
Independent-Measures Designs
Repeated-Measures Designs
Experimental Protocols
Protocol
Conclusion
References
46 Postulated Pathways Between Environmental Exposures and Cognitive Performance
Introduction
Sensory Responses as Initiators of Pathways
Physiological and Neurological Pathways
Psychological Pathways
Concluding Remarks
Cross References
References
47 Effects from Exposures to Human Bioeffluents and Carbon Dioxide
Introduction
Effect of Human Bioeffluents (with Carbon Dioxide) on Cognitive Performance
Effect of (Pure) Carbon Dioxide on Cognitive Performance
Effects at Carbon Dioxide Concentrations Typically Occurring Indoors (CO2 < 5000 ppm)
Effects at Carbon Dioxide Concentrations Higher than PEL (CO2 > 5000 ppm)
Long-Term Exposures (>1 Day)
Exploring the Possibility of Underlying Physiological Mechanisms
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
48 Effects of IAQ on Office Work Performance
Introduction
Studies Examining the Effects of IAQ on Work Performance
Studies Where Pollution Levels Were Altered by Modifying the Concentration of Specific Pollutants
The Effects of CO2 on Work Performance, Simulated Work Performance, and/or Cognitive Abilities
The Effects of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) on Cognitive Abilities
Studies Where Pollution Levels Were Altered by Modifying Ventilation Rates
Office-Like Controlled Environments
Call-Centers
Relationships Between Ventilation and Cognitive Performance
Studies Where Pollution Levels Were Altered by Adding or Removing a Pollution Source and/or Sink
Limitations and Future Work
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
49 Effects of Classroom Air Quality on Learning in Schools
Introduction
The Effects on the Performance of Schoolwork and Absence Rates
The Effects on Psychological and Neurobehavioral Tests
The Effects on Typical School Tasks
The Effects on National and Aptitude Tests and Examination Results
The Effects on Absence Rates
Sleep and Learning
The Relationships Between Learning and IAQ
Conclusions
References
50 Sleep and Indoor Air Quality
Introduction
The Importance of Good Sleep
Measurement of Sleep Quality
Sleep Functions
IAQ in the Bedroom
CO2 Levels in Bedroom
Other Pollutants in Bedroom
Air Pollution Exposure and Sleep
Ambient Exposure and Sleep
Particulate Matter and Sleep
Multiple Air Pollutants and Sleep
IAQ and Sleep
Ventilation and Sleep
Other Indoor Pollutants and Sleep
Possible Mechanisms
Interactions with Temperature
Aromatherapy and Sleep
Possible Solutions to Improve IAQ in Bedrooms
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
51 Economic Consequences
The Costs and Benefits Related to IAQ
Health Costs
The Costs of Reduced Work Performance
The Costs of Reduced Learning
Other Costs
Green Buildings
Working from Home
An Example of a Model Used to Estimate the Costs
Conclusion
References
Part X: Standards and Guidelines
52 WHO Health Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality and National Recommendations/Standards
Introduction
WHO Indoor Air Quality Guidelines
WHO Guidelines Related to Indoor Environment: Background
Criteria for Inclusion and Exclusion of the Specific Pollutants
Organic Indoor Air Pollutants
Inorganic Indoor Gaseous Pollutants: CO and NO2 and Radon
Particulate Matter: PM2.5 and PM10
Summary of the IAQ Numerical Guideline Values
National Standards
Summary
References
53 ASTM and ASHRAE Standards for the Assessment of Indoor Air Quality
Introduction
IAQ Test Standards
Overview
ASTM Methods Developed by Subcommittee on Indoor Air
ASTM Methods Developed by Other Subcommittees
ISO Methods Developed by ISO TC 146/SC 6 Indoor Air Subcommittee
US EPA Methods
Government Regulations
Other Frequently Used Standards
ASTM Test Standards
ASHRAE Standards
ASHRAE 62.1
ASHRAE 62.2
Applications
Priority Areas for Future Standardization Related to IAQ Testing
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
54 IEC/ISO Standards of Air Cleaners
Introduction
IEC Standards of Air Cleaners
IEC Profile (https://www.iec.ch/who-we-are)
Membership
Structure
Technical Committees
Participation
IEC/TC 61 and Air Cleaner Safety Standards
IEC/TC 61 (https://www.iec.ch/dyn/www/f?p=103:7:0::::FSP_ORG_ID:1236)
IEC 60335-2-65
IEC/TC 59 and Air Cleaner Performance Standards
IEC/TC 59 (https://www.iec.ch/dyn/www/f?p=103:14:13818013144838::::FSP_ORG_ID,FSP_LANG_ID:19691,25)
IEC 63086 Series
Background
Summary of Development Process or Plans
Joint Work Together with ISO/TC 142
Information of IEC 63086-1:2020
Work Plan and Progress of SWGs on Microbe Reduction and Fresh-Air Air Cleaners
SWG 3 on Microbe Reduction
SWG 6 on Fresh-Air Air Cleaners
ISO Standards of Air Cleaners
ISO Profile (https://www.iso.org/about-us.html)
Membership
Structure
Technical Committees
Participation
ISO/TC 142 (https://www.iso.org/committee/52624.html)
Standards of ISO/TC 142 (https://www.iso.org/committee/52624.html)
Conclusion
References
55 IAQ Requirements in Green Building Labeling Systems and Healthy Building Labeling Systems
Introduction
Green and Health Building Labeling Systems
China Assessment Standard for Green Building (CASGB)
LEED
BREEAM
China Assessment Standard for Healthy Building (CASHB)
WELL
Environmental Index
Environmental Index in CASGB
Environmental Index in LEED
Environmental Index in BREEAM
Environmental Index in CASHB
Environmental Index in WELL
Formaldehyde, VOC, and SVOC Control in Labeling Systems
CASGB
LEED
BREEAM
CASHB
WELL
Particulate Matter (PM) Control in Labeling Systems
CASGB
Design
Monitoring
LEED
Design
Monitoring
BREEAM
CASHB
Design
Monitoring
WELL
Design
Monitoring
Conclusion
References
Part XI: Indoor Air Quality Control
56 Testing and Reducing VOC Emissions from Building Materials and Furniture
Introduction
Standard Environmental Chamber Testing Methods and Procedure
Overview
Principles
Determination of Emission Factor
Material Emission Characteristics
Variables Affecting Emission Rates
Effect of Product Age
Estimation of the Contribution of the Materials to the VOC Concentrations in Buildings
Other Important Considerations
Air Sampling and Chemical Analysis
Sampling Methods
Sampling Volume and Flow Rates
Chemical Analysis Systems
Test Procedure
Chamber Operation
Measurement of Background VOC Concentrations
Unpackaging and Transfer of Test Piece to Chamber
Place Test Specimen in Chamber
Record Time Zero
Collect Air Samples
Perform Chemical Analysis
Unloading and Background Verification
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Chamber Concentration
Chamber Source Emission Rate
Chamber Emission Factor
Calculation of Power-Law Model Coefficients
Determinations of Compliance
Establishing the Link Between Chamber Testing and Real Applications
Overview of the Process
Standard Methods, Evaluation Criteria, and Labeling Schemes
Product Labeling Programs
Application in Building Rating Systems
Whole Building Approach for Modeling the Impact of Product Emission on IAQ
Application Examples
ANSI/BIFMA e3 Furniture Sustainability Standard and ANSI/BIFMA M7.1 and X7.1
CDPH Standard Method v1.2
EN 16516 Test Method with EU-LCI Values or German AgBB Evaluation Scheme
VOC Emission Testing and Labeling Systems in China
Eco Mark Labeling System in Japan
Concluding Remarks and Future Outlook
References
57 Influence of Ventilation on Indoor Air Quality
Introduction
Residential Building
Natural Ventilation
Mechanical Ventilation
Hybrid Ventilation
Office Building
Natural Ventilation
Mechanical Ventilation
Mixing Ventilation
Displacement Ventilation
Stratum Ventilation
Personalized Ventilation
Transportation Vehicle Cabin
Mixing Ventilation
Displacement Ventilation
Personalized Ventilation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
58 Evaluating Ventilation Performance
Introduction
Terminology
Reasons for Evaluating Ventilation
Building and System Impacts on Ventilation Evaluation
Performance Issues and Parameters
Building and System Design Information
Measurement Methods
System Status
Envelope Air Leakage
Ventilation System Airflow
Outdoor Air Change Rate
Interzone Airflow
Air Distribution
Other Considerations
Variation in Ventilation
Deviations from Design Intent
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
59 Control of Airborne Particles: Filtration
Introduction
Filtration Theory
Single Fiber Collection Efficiency
Overall Filter Efficiency
Selecting Filters: Test Methods and Rating Systems
Filter Applications in Buildings
Portable and Room-Level Systems
Clean Air Delivery Rate
Practical Considerations for Portable and Room-Level Filtration Systems
In-Duct Filters
Residential In-Duct Air Filters
Commercial and Institutional In-Duct Air Filters
Impacts of Filters in Real Buildings
Conclusions
References
60 PCO and TCO in Air Cleaning
Introduction
Photocatalytic Oxidation
Principal
Enhancement of the Removal Effectiveness
The Number of the Mass Transfer Unit, NTUm
Discussion on A*
Discussion on Stm
Discussion on η
Determination of A*, Stm, η, and βa for a Given PCO Reactor
Illustrative Examples: Honeycomb-Type Reactors
Identification of PCO By-Products
By-Products Detected via GC-MS
Possible PCO Pathways of Toluene
Thermal Catalytic Oxidation
Formaldehyde Removal by TCO
Kinetic Reaction Model
Conclusions
References
61 Managing IAQ at Multiple Scales: From Urban to Personal Microenvironments
Introduction
Motivation and Challenge
Multi-scale Nature of the Built Environmental System
Multitudes of Pollutants Indoors and Their Sources
IAQ Control Principles and Strategies
A 3-D View of IAQ Engineering
Approach and Model for Assessing the Effectiveness of IAQ Control Strategies
Overview
A Simplified Multi-scale IAQ Model
Definition of Baseline Cases
Assessment Procedure
Potentials and Limits of Source Control, Ventilation and Air Purification at Different Scales
Urban Scale
Building Scale
Room Scale
Personal Microenvironments
Integration of IAQ Strategies
Case Study: IAQ Design and Control Strategies for a LEED Platinum Building: SyracuseCOE Headquarters
Concluding Remarks and Future Outlook
Cross-References
References
62 Simulations for Indoor Air Quality Control Planning
Introduction
Principle of the Performance-Based Approach
Identification of Purpose
Model Assumptions
Governing Equations
Determination of Model Inputs
Specification of Model Outputs
Simulation Case Design
Simulation Running
Analysis of Simulation Results
Single-Zone Modeling and Simulation
Purpose Identification and Model Selection
Model Assumptions and Governing Equations
Model Input Parameters and Their Determination
Emission Source
Dry Material
``Wet´´ Material
Assembled Material
Adsorption Sink
Adsorbed Material
Air Cleaner
Ventilation
Model Output and Analysis of Cases
Example Software Tools
MEDB-IAQ
IA-Quest
Multi-Zone Modeling and Simulation
Purpose Identification and Model Selection
Model Assumptions and Governing Equations
Model Input Parameters and their Determination
Model Output and Analysis of Typical Cases
Example Software Tools
Champs
Pact-IAQ
Computational Fluid Dynamics Modeling and Simulation
Purpose Identification and Model Selection
Governing Equations and Solving Methods
Model Inputs and their Determinations
Model Output and Analysis of Typical Cases
Example Software Tools
Fluent
Phonics
CFX
Data-Driven Models
Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Conclusions
Future Perspectives
Various Source Emission Models
Health Effect
Occupant Behavior
Smart Sensors and Big Data
Various Control Strategies
Combined IAQ and Energy Modeling and Simulations
References
Part XII: Air Quality in Various Indoor Environments
63 Indoor Air Quality in Day-Care Centers
Introduction
Building Typologies
Occupancy
Function/Uses of Space in Day-Care Centers
Air Temperature and Relative Humidity
Ventilation
Air Cleaning
Indoor Air Pollutants
NO2
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Ozone (O3)
Allergens
Particulate Matter
PM10
PM2.5
Ultra-Fine Particulates (UFPs)
Infectious Diseases
Dampness and Mold
VOCs
Radon
Emerging Hazards
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
64 Indoor Air Quality in Schools
Introduction
What Is Unique About Schools?
Review of the School Building Archetypal Forms
Classroom IAQ
IAQ Variables
Empirical Evidence and Key Monitoring Studies
Health Outcomes and Limits
Ventilation Rates
Effect on Health and Academic Performance
Ventilation Rates Requirements and Limits
Ventilation Rates: Levels
The Assessment of IAQ
Carbon Dioxide
Effects of CO2 on Health and Cognitive/Academic Performance
Limits for CO2 and Required Ventilation Rates in Schools
CO2 Levels from Existing Studies
Influencing Factors and Correlations
Nitrogen Dioxide
NO2 Limits, Link to Health
NO2 Levels from Existing Studies
Influencing Factors
Particulate Matter (PM)
PMx Limits, Link to Health
PMx Levels from Existing Studies
Influencing Factors
VOCs
VOC Limits, Link to Health
VOC Levels from Existing Studies
Influencing Factors
Summary and Conclusions
The Evidence Gap
Influencing Factors and Correlations
Ventilation Strategy
Air Exchange Rates
Building Envelope Airtightness
Classroom Occupancy
Seasonal Effects
Building Better Schools
Cross-References
References
65 Indoor Air Quality in Offices
Introduction
Background
Problem Statement: IAQ in Office Buildings
Strategic Considerations
Indoor Air Pollutants of Concern for Offices
Sources and Determinants of IAPs in Offices
Assessment Methods and Strategies for IAQ in Offices
IAQ Monitoring Approaches
IAQ Perception and Health Symptoms
IAQ and Health Outcomes in Office Workers
IAQ Management and Risk Mitigation Measures in Offices
Conclusions
References
66 Indoor Air Quality in Elderly Care Centers
Introduction
A Paradigm Shift to Address Indoor Air Quality
Major Chemical Pollutants, Source Signatures, and Health Relevance
Particulate Matter
Volatile Organic Compounds
Nitrogen Dioxide
Ozone
Carbon Dioxide
Indoor Air Quality Health-Based Guidelines
Current Guidelines
Future Perspectives
The Challenges of Making Indoors Healthy
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
67 Inhalation and Skin Exposure to Chemicals in Hospital Settings
Introduction
Exposure and Health Hazards in Hospital Settings
Exposure to Chemicals Used for Cleaning, Disinfection, Sterilization, and Skin Antiseptics
Cleaning and Disinfecting Environmental Surfaces
Cleaning and Disinfecting Products for Environmental Surfaces
Ingredients of Cleaning and Disinfecting Products for Environmental Surfaces
Exposure to Cleaning and Disinfecting Chemicals
Skin Exposure to Disinfectants and Antiseptics
Exposure to High-Level Disinfectants and Sterilizing Chemicals
Health Effects Associated with Cleaning, Disinfecting, and Sterilizing Chemicals
Exposure to Other Hospital Products and Chemicals
Exposures to Chemical Hazards in Operating Rooms (OR)/Surgical Units and Orthopedics
Exposure to Chemicals and Dust in Dental Clinics and Laboratories
Exposures to Chemicals in Other Hospital Occupations and Departments
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
68 Exposure to Air Pollutants in Ground Transport Microenvironments
Introduction
Most Important In-Cabin Pollutants
Methods to Assess the Exposure During Commuting
Measuring
Fix Monitoring Stations
Portable Devices and Low-Cost Sensors
Exposure Modelling Techniques
Factors Affecting the Personal Exposure During Commuting
Transport Characteristics
Type of Fuel, Vehicle Category, and Emission Standards
Ventilation Settings
Interior Materials
Road and Traffic Conditions
Meteorological Variables
Individual Behavior
Impacts on Health
Measures to Reduce Exposure During Commuting
Optimizing Driving Behavior
Transition to Active Transportation
Healthier Routes Planning
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
69 Indoor Air Quality in Commercial Air Transportation
Introduction
Air Supply in Means of Air Transportation: The Environmental Control System (ECS)
Commercial Aircraft
Business Jets and Helicopters
Requirements
Regulations
Mandatory Standards
Voluntary Guidelines
Outside Air Supply Rate
Relative Humidity
Selected Pollutants in the Aircraft Cabin
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Ozone (O3)
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
Total Volatile Organic Compounds (TVOC)
Semivolatile Organic Compounds (SVOCs)
Particles
Selected Sources of Some Typical Cabin Air Contaminants
Engine Oils
Hydraulic Fluids
Exhaust
Deicing Liquids
Possible Unlikely Failure Cases That May Compromise Cabin Air Quality
Pathogens
Physiological Response
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
70 Indoor Air Quality in Industrial Buildings
Introduction
Industrial Pollutants
High-Temperature Particles
Emission Characteristics of High-Temperature Particles
Migration Characteristics of High-Temperature Particles
Droplets
Gaseous Pollutants
Industrial Ventilation
General Ventilation with Zoning Environmental Control Strategy
Natural Zoning
Physical Partition
Airflow Partition
Local Exhaust Ventilation Technology
Adjustable Exhaust Hoods
Movable Exhaust Hoods
Parallel-Flow Push-Pull Ventilation
Vortex Ventilation Hoods
Assessment of Industrial Building Environment with High-Pollution Sources
Divisional Principles for Environmental Assessment
Environmental Parameters
Common Parameters
Specific Parameters
Prediction Methods of Environmental Parameter Values
Analogy Method
Model Experiment
Numerical Simulation
Conclusions
References
71 Household Air Pollution in Rural Area
Introduction
Household Air Pollution (HAP) Definition
Household Air Pollution (HAP) Sources
Indoor Combustion Emissions and Air Quality
Indoor Combustion Emissions
Indoor Fugitive Emission
Household Air Pollution
Indoor-Outdoor Ratio
Exposure and Influencing Factors
Quantification of Exposure
Contribution of Indoor Exposure
Influencing Factors
Health Risks Associated with HAP
Estimates of HAP-Related Health Impacts
Amplified Contribution and Clean Household Energy Transition
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
72 Indoor Air Quality in the Context of Climate Change
Introduction
Key Aspects of the Changing Climate
Impacts of CC on the Indoor Environment
Changes in Activity Patterns Due to and in Parallel with Climate Change
Vulnerability
Implications for IAQ of Climate Adaptation and Mitigation Actions
Conclusions
References
Index