Handbook of Food Bioactive Ingredients : Properties and Applications

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
1 An Overview of Different Food Bioactive Ingredients
Introduction
Nutrition and Chronic Diseases
Bioactive Ingredients and Functional Foods
Natural Sources of Bioactive Compounds
Phenolic Compounds
Carotenoids and Phytosterols
Bioactive Peptides (BPs)
Marine Bioactive Peptides
Nonmarine Animal Bioactive Peptides
Plant Bioactive Peptides
Microbial Bioactive Peptides
Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs)
Live Organisms
Essential Oils (EOs) and Oleoresins
Vitamins and Minerals
Other Bioactive Compounds
Conclusion
References
Part I: Phenolic Compounds
2 Hydroxybenzoic Acids
Introduction
Salicylic Acid
Chemistry and Structure
Safety and Oral Delivery
Functionality and Functional Food Applications
P-Hydroxybenzoic Acid
Chemistry and Structure
Safety and Oral Delivery
Functionality and Functional Food Applications
Protocatechuic Acid
Chemistry and Structure
Safety and Oral Delivery
Functionality and Functional Food Applications
Gentisic Acid
Chemistry and Structure
Safety and Oral Delivery
Functionality and Functional Food Applications
3,5-Dihydroxybenzoic Acid
Chemistry and Structure
Safety and Oral Delivery
Functionality and Functional Food Applications
Pyrocatechuic Acid
Chemistry and Structure
Safety and Oral Delivery
Functionality and Functional Food Applications
Vanillic Acid
Chemistry and Structure
Safety and Oral Delivery
Functionality and Functional Food Applications
Syringic Acid
Chemistry and Structure
Safety and Oral Delivery
Functionality and Functional Food Applications
Gallic Acid
Chemistry and Structure
Safety and Oral Delivery
Functionality and Functional Food Applications
Ellagic Acid
Chemistry and Structure
Safety and Oral Delivery
Functionality and Functional Food Applications
Conclusion
References
3 Hydroxycinnamic Acids
Introduction
Chemistry and Functionality of Hydroxycinnamic Acids
Biosynthetic Pathways of Hydroxycinnamic Acids
Occurrence, Separation, Analysis, and Applications as Food Ingredients of Specific Hydroxycinnamic Acids
Cinnamic Acid
p-Coumaric Acid
Caffeic Acid
Ferulic and Sinapic Acids
Chlorogenic Acids
Rosmarinic, Chicoric, p-Coutaric, Caftaric, Fertaric Acids, and Other Minor Hydroxycinnamic Acid Derivatives
Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
4 Flavones
Introduction
Chemistry and Functionality of Flavones
Biosynthetic Pathways of Flavones
Metabolism of Flavones
Chemical Stability, Encapsulation, and Incorporation of Flavones into Food Products
Occurrence, Separation, Analysis, and Applications as Food Ingredients of Specific Flavones
Flavone Aglycones Containing Hydroxyl Groups
Flavone Aglycones Containing Hydroxyl and Methoxy Groups
Flavone Aglycones Containing Methoxy Groups
Flavone Glycosides
Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
5 Flavonols
Introduction
Chemistry and Functionality of Flavonols
Biosynthetic Pathways of Flavonols
Chemical Stability, Encapsulation, and Incorporation of Flavonols into Food Products
Occurrence, Separation, Analysis, and Applications as Food Ingredients of Specific Flavonols
Flavonol Aglycones
Flavonol Glycosides
Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
6 Flavanones
Introduction
Chemistry and Functionality of Flavanones
Biosynthetic Pathways and Metabolism of Flavanones
Chemical Stability, Toxicity, Safety, Encapsulation, and Incorporation of Flavanones into Food Products
Occurrence, Separation, Analysis, and Applications as Food Ingredients of Specific Flavanones
Flavanone Aglycones
Flavanone Glycosides
Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
7 Flavanols
Introduction
Flavan-3-ols
Chemistry and Structure
Properties in Foods
Main Dietary Sources
Health Benefits
Oxidative Stress
Immunity
Cardiovascular Health
Metabolism
Exercise Performance
Cognitive Function and Mood
Gut Health
Skin Health
Nutrikinetics and Safety
Bioavailability and Absorption
Dietary Interactions
Safety and Toxicity
Chemical Stability of Flavan-3-ols
Stability During Processing
Stability During Storage
Incorporation into Functional Foods
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
8 Isoflavones
Introduction
Isoflavones in Human Nutrition and Health
Structure and Classification of Isoflavones
Sources of Isoflavones for Humans
Metabolism of Isoflavones in Human
Small Intestine
Large Intestine (Colon)
Factors Influencing Equol-Producing Bacteria and Equol Production
Health Effects of Isoflavones
Health Effects of Isoflavones Caused by Estrogen Hormone-Like Actions
Anticarcinogenic Effects
Cardioprotective Effects
Antiosteoporotic Effects
Antimenopausal Effects
Effects on Cognitive Functions
Health Effects of Isoflavones Caused by Nonhormonal Actions
Antithyroid Effects
Antidiabetic Effect
Antioxidant Effects
Delivery of Isoflavones Using Functional Food Products
Safety and Toxicity of Isoflavones
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
9 Anthocyanins
Introduction
Chemical Structure
Chemical Stability
Technological and Biological Functionality
Safety and Toxicity
Food Applications of Anthocyanins
Functional Foods
Dietary Supplements
Smart Food Packaging
Technological Challenges for Incorporating Anthocyanins into Functional Foods
Effects of Processing and Storage on Anthocyanin Stability
Effects of Food Matrix on Anthocyanin Stability
Strategies to Enhance Anthocyanin Stability
Conclusion
References
10 Chalcones
Introduction
Food Chalcones
Chalcones Bioavailability and Metabolism
Biological Activities of Food Chalcones
Antimicrobial Activity of Natural Chalcones
Tumor Cell Cytotoxic Activities of Natural Chalcones
Enzyme Inhibitors and Enzyme Inducers
Cardioprotective Effects
Neuroprotective Effect
Antidiabetic Activities
Chalcones Obtaining Methods
Chalcones of Natural Origin
Chalcones of Synthetic Origin
Food Sources: Extraction Methods (Green Synthesis and Solvent-Free Synthesis/Chemical)
Chalcones´ Chemical Stability
Encapsulation Methods of Chalcones for Food Applications
Microencapsulation
Nanoformulations
Applications for the Food Industry
Biotransformation of Chalcones for Food and Health Utilization
Functional Foods
Conclusion
References
11 Ellagitannins
Introduction
Ellagitannin Chemical Properties and Dietary Sources
Distribution of Ellagitannins Throughout Fruiting Bodies
Digestion of Ellagitannins
Microbial Biotransformation of Ellagitannins and Ellagic Acid to Urolithins
Ellagitannin Bioavailability
The Influence of the Food Matrix on Ellagitannin Bioavailability
Health Benefits of Ellagitannins
Toxicology
Formulation Strategies to Improve Oral Bioavailability of Ellagitannins
Ellagic Acid Derivatives
Ellagic Acid Delivery Systems
Ellagitannin Supplements and Functional Food Ingredient
Quality Control and Stability Testing During Ellagitannin Product Development
Conclusion
References
12 Gallotannins
Introduction
Chemical Characterization of GTs
Degradation and Synthesis of GTs
Distribution and Distinction
Physiological Activities of GTs
Antioxidant
Anti-inflammatory
Sensory Reinforcement
Antidiabetic
Antibacterial
Application of GTs
Food Processing
Food Package
Plant Protection
Phylaxiology
Safety and Toxicity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
13 Procyanidins
Introduction
Procyanidins: A General Overview of Structure, Sources, and Health Benefits
General Structure of Procyanidins
Main Derivatives and Structures of Procyanidins
The Sources of Procyanidins
Beneficial Properties of Procyanidins
Bioavailability of Procyanidins
Bioavailability Studies of Procyanidins by Different Models
Digestion Stability of Procyanidins
Extraction and Encapsulation Methods of Procyanidins
Extraction of Procyanidins from Different Sources
Solid-Liquid Extraction of Procyanidins
Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Procyanidins
Encapsulation of Procyanidins by Various Methods
The Significance of the Encapsulation for the Appropriate Use of Procyanidins
Encapsulation of Procyanidins by Spray Drying
Encapsulation of Procyanidins by Nanoemulsion
Combined Methods for the Encapsulation of Procyanidins
Liposomal Structure of Procyanidins for the Encapsulation
Other Methods for the Encapsulation of Procyanidins
Microfluidizer Method
Coacervate Method
Food Applications of Procyanidins
Applications of Procyanidins in Various Food Matrices
Commercial Procyanidin-Rich Bioactive Extracts in Food Matrices
Procyanidins as a Fortification Agent in Food Matrices
Safety and Regulations of Procyanidins from Different Sources
Safety and Regulations of Procyanidin Derivatives from Cranberry Extract
Safety and Regulations of Procyanidin Derivatives from Grape Extract
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
14 Stilbenes and Its Derivatives and Glycosides
Introduction
Chemistry and Functionality of Stilbenes
Biosynthetic Pathways and Metabolism of Stilbenes
Chemical Stability, Encapsulation, and Incorporation of Stilbenes in Food Products
Occurrence, Separation, Analysis, and Applications of Specific Stilbenes as Food Ingredients
Stilbene Aglycones
Stilbene Glycosides
Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
15 Lignans
Introduction
Lignan Structure
Lignan Sources
Metabolism in the Body
Metabolism of Lignans by the Gut Microbiota
Dietary Intake
Biological Activity and Health-Promoting Attributes
Effects of Lignans on Cancer
Techniques for Extraction of Lignans
Techniques for Measurement of Lignans
Application of Lignans in Food Products
Dairy Products
Baked Products
Meat Products
Effect of Processing on Lignans
Conclusion and Future Trends
References
Part II: Carotenoids and Sterols
16 Lycopene
Introduction
Sources of Lycopene
Chemical Structure
Absorption, Metabolism, and Bioavailability
Mechanism of Action
Antioxidant Activity
Other Mechanisms of Action
Anti-inflammatory Activity
Lycopene and Chronic Diseases
Cardiovascular Diseases
Cancer
Alzheimer´s Disease
Lung Diseases and Osteoporosis
Extracting Lycopene from Food Sources and Applications
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
17 Beta-Carotene
Introduction
β-Carotene Structure
β-Carotene Properties
Biological Role of Retinol (Vitamin A)
Physicochemical Properties of β-Carotene
Biosynthesis Pathways of β-Carotene
Absorption and Metabolism Aspect of β-Carotene in the Human Body
Antioxidant Activity of β-Carotene and Its Effect on Cardiovascular Diseases
Anticancer Activity and Cell Proliferation and Apoptosis Regulation
Anti-inflammatory Effect
The Role of β-Carotene on Diabetes
The Role of β-Carotene on Obesity
β-Carotene and Skin Health
Safety and Toxicity Aspects of β-Carotene
Breast Cancer
Prostate Cancer
Colon Cancer
Skin Cancer
The Effect of β-Carotene on Melanoma Skin Cancer
Lung Cancer
Conclusion
References
18 Lutein
Introduction
Structure and Chemistry of Lutein
Dietary Source and Bioavailability
Dietary Source
Bioavailability
Biosynthesis
Formation of Isopentenyl Diphosphate (IPP)
Formation of Geranylgeranyl Pyrophosphate (GGPP)
Biosynthesis and Desaturation of Phytoene
Cyclization of Lycopene
Hydroxylation
Absorption and Tissue Distribution
Biochemical Role
Antioxidative Activity
Prevention of Chronic Diseases
Age-Related Macular Degeneration
Retinitis Pigmentosa
Cardiovascular Health
Cancer Prevention
Controlling Diabetes
Isolation/Extraction
Stability
pH
Temperature
Light
Oxidation
Other Factors
Application in the Food Industry
Lutein Delivery System
Liposomes
Emulsion-Based Systems
Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers
Polymer-Based Nanoparticles
Polymer/Lipid-Based Nanoparticles
Conclusion
References
19 Zeaxanthin
Introduction
Physical and Chemical Properties of Zeaxanthin
Chemical Structure and Their Stereoisomers
Physicochemical Characteristics
Sources of Zeaxanthin
Extraction, Isolation, and Analysis of Zeaxanthin
Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Zeaxanthin
Human Health and Zeaxanthin
Prevention of Age-Related Macular Degeneration
Improvement of Cognitive Function
Diabetes Treatment
Chemoprevention of Cancer
Hepatoprotection
Enhancement of Embryonic and Fetal Development During Pregnancy
Pigmentation in the Poultry and Aquaculture Industry
Zeaxanthin in Food, Cosmetics, and Nutraceutical Business
Safety and Recommended Dosage of Zeaxanthin
Globe Market and Commercial Application of Zeaxanthin
Conclusions and Perspectives
References
20 Astaxanthin
Introduction
Physical and Chemical Properties of Astaxanthin
Chemical Structure and Isomerism
Physicochemical Characteristics
Sources of Astaxanthin
Synthetic Astaxanthin
Microalgae
Yeasts
Crustaceans
Plants
Extraction, Isolation, and Analysis of Astaxanthin
Biological Activities of Astaxanthin and Human Health
Antioxidant and Antiaging Activity
Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases
Modulation of the Immunological Response
Anticancer Activity
Prevention of Complications of Diabetes Mellitus
Astaxanthin Effect Against Neurodegenerative Disorders
Antihypertensive Activity
Improvement of Exercise Performance and Recovery
Eye Health
Treatment of Helicobacter pylori Infections
Skin Protection
Astaxanthin in the Aquaculture Industry
Benefits of Astaxanthin in Livestock and Poultry
Micro- and Nano-encapsulation of Astaxanthin
Safety and Recommended Dosage of Astaxanthin
Globe Market and Commercial Application and of Astaxanthin
Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
21 Fucoxanthin
Introduction
Source of Fucoxanthin
Fucoxanthin Chemistry
Stability of Fucoxanthin
Temperature
Light
pH
Oxidation
Extraction Methods of Fucoxanthin
Maceration Extraction (ME)
Enzyme-Assisted Extraction (EAE)
Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE)
Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE)
Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE)
Biotechnological Explorations Related to Fucoxanthin Production
Health Promotion Properties of Fucoxanthin
Pharmacokinetics of Fucoxanthin
Pharmacological Properties and Mechanism of Action of Fucoxanthin
Anticancer Activity
Anti-Obesity Activity
Anti-Diabetic Activity
Regulation of UCP1
Anti-Inflammatory and Pain Regulation Activity
Antioxidant Activity
Hyperuricemia Regulation
Anti-Dermatitis Activity
Neuroprotection Activity
Fucoxanthin-Drug Interactions
Fucoxanthin as a Functional Food and Nutraceutical
Advanced Fucoxanthin Formulations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
22 Bixin
Introduction
Biosynthesis, Characteristic, Isolation, and Identification of Bixin
Biosynthesis of Bixin
Characteristics of Bixin
Isolation and Identification of Bixin
Bioavailability and Metabolism of Bixin
Pharmacology and Molecular Mechanisms of Bixin
Therapeutic Potential of Bixin
Brain and Nervous System Diseases
Cancer
Cardiovascular Diseases
Metabolic Syndrome and Liver Disease
Renal Diseases
Respiratory Diseases
Immunity
Other Therapeutic Effects
Bixin and Clinical Finding
Applications and Dietary Contribution of Bixin
Conclusions and Future Directions
References
23 Crocins
Introduction
Structural and Physicochemical Characteristics
Source of Crocins and Their Extraction
Source
Extraction and Analysis of Crocins
Pharmacokinetics and Therapeutic Effects
Tumoricidal Properties
Anticancer Mechanisms of Crocin
Apoptosis Induction
Cell Cycle Arrest Induction
Inhibition of Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMPs) Expression
Thyroid Cancer (TC)
Lung Cancer
Gastric Cancer
Pancreatic Cancer
Breast Cancer
Crocin´s Effect on the Central Nervous System
Effect on Memory and Learning
Effect of Crocin on Alzheimer´s Disease
Effect on Cerebral Ischemia
Crocin´s Effect on the Cardiovascular System
Effect of Crocin on Atherosclerosis, Hyperlipidemia, and Hypertension
Antioxidant Activities
Crocin Bioavailability and Stability
Crocetin and Crocin: A Side-by-Side Comparison
Improving Crocin Stability Through Delivery Systems
Crocin Toxicity
Crocin Safety
Crocin Biosynthesis Engineering and Progress
Conclusion
References
24 Dietary Phytosterols
Introduction
Phytosterols: Sources, Classification, and Occurrence
Phytosterols: Absorption and Metabolism
Biosynthesis Approaches of Phytosterol
Molecular Mechanism of Dietary Phytosterols: Focus on Various Biological Barriers
Therapeutic Applications of Phytosterols
Anticarcinogenic Effects
Antidiabetic Effects
Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects
Anti-atherosclerotic Effects
Antieryptotic and Antihemolytic Effects
Microbiota Modulatory Activity
Toxicological Aspects and Safety of Various Phytosterols
Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Part III: Bioactive Peptides
25 Marine Bioactive Peptides
Introduction
Fish Bioactive Peptides
Antioxidant Fish Peptides
Antihypertensive Fish Peptides
Antimicrobial Fish Peptides
Anticancer Fish Peptides
Bioavailability and Bioaccessibility of Fish Peptides
Application of Fish Bioactive Peptides
Macroalgae Bioactive Peptides
Structure-Activity Relationship of Macroalgae Bioactive Peptides
Bioavailability and Bioaccessibility of Seaweed Peptides
Potential Applications of Seaweed Bioactive Peptides
Mollusk´s Bioactive Peptides
Structure-Activity Relationship of Mollusk´s Peptides
Potential Application of Cephalopods Bioactive Peptides
Crustaceans Bioactive Peptides
Conclusion
References
26 Non-marine Animal Bioactive Peptides
Introduction
Meat
Obtaining Meat Peptides
Bioactivity of Meat Peptides
Antihypertensive Activity
Antioxidant Activity
Other Bioactivities
Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Meat Peptides
Milk
Obtaining Milk Peptides
Bioactivity of Milk/Dairy Peptides
Antihypertensive Activity
Antioxidant Activity
Antidiabetic
Gut Health Improvement
Other Bioactivities
Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Milk Peptides
Egg
Obtaining Egg Peptides
Bioactivity of Egg Peptides
Antihypertensive Activity
Antioxidant Activity
Antimicrobial Activity
Other Bioactivities
Application of Bioactive Peptides
Conclusion
References
27 Plant Bioactive Peptides
Introduction
Cereals and Pseudo-cereals
Rice
Wheat
Amaranth
Quinoa
Legumes or Pulses
Beans
Peas
Chickpea
Cowpea
Lentils
Oilseeds
Soybean
Rapeseed, Colza, or Canola
Sunflower
Peanut
Fruits and Vegetables
Broccoli and Cauliflower
Potato
Tomato
Sweet Potato
Conclusion
References
28 Microbial Bioactive Peptides
Introduction
Microbial Bioactive Peptides
Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB)-Derived Bioactive Peptides
LAB Proteolytic System
Extraction and Purification of Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB)-Derived Bioactive Peptides
Production of Bioactive Peptides with Co-cultures of Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) and Yeast
Yeast-Derived Bioactive Peptides
Bioactive Peptides from Yeast Extract
Bioactive Peptides from Yeast-Fermented Products
Peptides Released by Yeast
Filamentous Fungi-Derived Bioactive Peptides
Production of Proteases and Generation of Bioactive Peptides in SSF by Filamentous Fungi
Production of Fermented Soybean Products by SSF with Filamentous Fungi
Conclusions
References
Part IV: Essential Fatty Acids and Minerals
29 Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
Introduction
Sources of ω-3 PUFAs
Overview on Conventional Sources
Microalgae as a Promising Source
Microbial Sources of ω-3 PUFAs
Structural Features and Properties of ω-3 PUFAs
Methods for Extracting Marine Oils
Traditional Solvent Extraction Methods
Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE)
Oil Extraction by Enzymatic Methods
ω-3 PUFAs Concentration from Fish Oil
Supercritical Fluid Fractionation (SFF)
Enzymatic Methods in ω-3 PUFAs Concentration
Low-Temperature Crystallization Enrichment
Molecular Distillation
Urea Complexation Process
Health Effects of ω-3 PUFAs and Their Mechanisms of Action
Futures Prospectives
Cross-References
References
30 Plant Oils Rich in Essential Fatty Acids
Introduction
Importance and Therapeutic Roles of Plant-Based Essential Fatty Acids (Omega-3 and Omega-6)
Sources of Plant-Based Essential Fatty Acids
Preservation of Oils Rich in Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
Metabolic Fates of Essential Fatty Acids (Omega-3 and Omega-6)
Some Physicochemical Aspects of Plant-Based Oils
Digestion of Fatty Acids
Application of Plant-Based Oils in Human and Animal
Conclusions
References
31 Trace Minerals
Introduction
Iron
Chemistry and Structure
Absorption and Metabolism
Function
Requirement and Sources
Deficiency, Toxicity, and Safety
Applications in Functional Foods
Zinc
Chemistry and Structure
Absorption and Metabolism
Function
Requirement and Sources
Deficiency, Toxicity, and Safety
Applications in Functional Foods
Copper
Chemistry and Structure
Absorption and Metabolism
Function
Requirement and Sources
Deficiency, Toxicity, and Safety
Applications in Functional Foods
Selenium
Chemistry and Structure
Absorption and Metabolism
Function
Requirement and Sources
Deficiency, Toxicity, and Safety
Applications in Functional Foods
Iodine
Chemistry and Structure
Absorption and Metabolism
Function
Requirement and Sources
Deficiency, Toxicity, and Safety
Applications in Functional Foods
Manganese
Chemistry and Structure
Absorption and Metabolism
Function
Requirement and Sources
Deficiency, Toxicity, and Safety
Applications in Functional Foods
Chromium
Chemistry and Structure
Absorption and Metabolism
Function
Requirement and Sources
Deficiency, Toxicity, and Safety
Applications in Functional Foods
Florid
Chemistry and Structure
Absorption and Metabolism
Function
Requirement and Sources
Deficiency, Toxicity, and Safety
Applications in Functional Foods
Molybdenum
Chemistry and Structure
Absorption and Metabolism
Function
Requirement and Sources
Deficiency, Toxicity, and Safety
Applications in Functional Foods
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Part V: Vitamins
32 Vitamin A
Introduction
Structure
Mechanisms of Action
Visual Cycle
Genome Expression
Other Functions
Vitamin A Deficiency (VAD)
Health-Promoting Properties of Vitamin A
Possible Indications
Role of Vitamin A in COVID-19 as an Immunity Booster
Recommended Dosage in Diet or Supplements
Safety and Toxicity of Vitamin A
Sources of Vitamin A
Stability of Vitamin A
Delivery Systems for Increasing Efficacy and Stability of Vitamin A
Vitamin A Encapsulation
Spray Drying
Spray Cooling
Coacervation
Emulsification
Liposomes
Solid-Lipid Nanoparticles
Inclusion Complexes
Electrospinning
The Pharmacokinetics of Vitamin A
Absorption
Distribution
Metabolism and Elimination
Conclusion
References
33 Vitamin D
Introduction
Discovery of Vitamin D and Its Nomenclature
Discovery
Nomenclature
Chemistry of Vitamin D
Natural Sources of Vitamin D
Foods
Sunlight
Physicochemical Properties and Metabolism
Physiochemical Properties
Metabolism
Functions
Vitamin D and Bone Health
Vitamin D and Diabetes Mellitus
Vitamin D and Immune Function
Vitamin D and Obesity
Vitamin D and Cognitive Function
Vitamin D and Cardiovascular Diseases
Hypertension
Atherosclerosis
Vitamin D and Cancer Prevention
Colon Cancer
Breast Cancer
Prostate Cancer
Vitamin D and COVID-19
Nutritional Benefits and Deficiencies
Vitamin D for Bone Strength
Vitamin D Helps to Strengthen Muscles
Vitamin D Supports the Immune System
Vitamin D Helps to Strengthen Oral Health
Vitamin D Helps to Treat Hypertension
Vitamin D Helps to Reduce Weight
Recent Research on the Association Between Vitamin D and Obesity Among Young Women
Vitamin D Deficiency
People at Risk for Vitamin D Deficiency
Stability Under Various Conditions and Effect of Processing on Stability
Effects of Stability During Processing
Encapsulation and Oral Delivery
Encapsulation
Microencapsulation
Coating Materials for Vitamin D Microencapsulation
Nanoencapsulation
Coating Materials for Vitamin D Nanoencapsulation
Oral Delivery of Encapsulated Vitamin D
Incorporation into Food Products
Safety and Regulations
Intake
Toxicity
Safety Intake
Safe Sunlight Exposure
Future Trends
Conclusion
References
34 Vitamin E
Introduction
Chemistry and Structure
Natural Sources
Physicochemical Properties of Vitamin E
Metabolism of Vitamin E
Functions of Vitamin E
Antioxidant Activity
Cellular Signaling
Preventing Platelet Coagulation
Prevention of Diseases
Encapsulation and Oral Delivery
General Aspects of Microencapsulation
Vitamin E Microencapsulation
Classification of Encapsulation Methods Applied for Vitamin E
Emulsion-Based Delivery Systems
Lipid Nanoparticle (NP) Delivery Systems
Filled Hydrogel Particles
Biopolymer (Micro- and Nanoparticle) Delivery Systems
Functional Foods Containing Encapsulated Vitamin E
Conclusion and Future Aspects
Cross-References
References
35 Vitamin K
Introduction
Chemistry and Structure
Phylloquinone
Menaquinones
Menadione
Natural Sources
Physicochemical Properties and Metabolism
Physicochemical Properties
Metabolism
Absorption, Transport, and Distribution of Vitamin K
Vitamin K Cycle
Vitamin K Storage
Metabolic Degradation and Excretion of Vitamin K
Functionality
Coagulation Cascade and Circulating Anticoagulants
Matrix Gla Protein (MGP)
Nutritional Benefits
Production of Coagulation Protein
Bone Strength
Cognition Level
Cardiovascular and Circulatory Systems
Novel Corona Disease (COVID-19)
Glycemic Index and Antitumor Effects
Vitamin K Deficiencies
Stability Under Various Conditions and Effect of Processing on Stability
Encapsulation and Oral Delivery
Incorporation of Vitamin K into Food Products
Safety and Regulation
Conclusion and Future Trends
Cross-References
References
36 Vitamin C
Introduction
Chemistry and Structure
Chemistry: Synthesis in Animals - In Vivo
Chemistry: Synthesis - In Vitro
Sources
Nutritional and Biochemical Importance
Cellular Regulation of Ascorbic Acid
Biological Activity and Health-Promoting Attributes
Antioxidant Activity
Anticancer Activity
Vitamin C and the Common Cold
Cardiovascular Disease
Scurvy: Discovery of Vitamin C
Vitamin C Encapsulation
Lipid-Based Carriers
Polysaccharide-Based Carriers
Protein-Based Carriers
Toxicity and Safety
Conclusion and Future Aspects
Cross-References
References
37 B Vitamins
Introduction
The Various of B Vitamins
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)
Absorption and Metabolism
Food Sources
Function
Deficiency
Toxicity
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
Absorption and Metabolism
Food Sources
Function
Deficiency
Toxicity
Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
Absorption and Metabolism
Food Sources
Function
Deficiency
Toxicity
Interactions with Other Nutrients
Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)
Absorption and Metabolism
Food Sources
Function
Deficiency
Toxicity
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
Absorption and Metabolism
Food Sources
Function
Deficiency
Toxicity
Vitamin B7 (Biotin)
Absorption and Metabolism
Food Sources
Function
Deficiency
Toxicity
Vitamin B9 (Folic Acid)
Absorption and Metabolism
Food Sources
Function
Interactions with Other Nutrients
Deficiency
Toxicity
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)
Absorption and Metabolism
Food Sources
Function
Deficiency
Toxicity
Conclusion
References
Part VI: Prebiotics and Dietary Fibers
38 Xylooligosaccharides (XOS)
Introduction
Chemical Structure of XOS and Xylan
Obtention of XOS
Processing of Lignocellulosic Biomass
Chemical Treatment
Hydrothermal Treatment (Autohydrolysis)
Enzymatic Treatment
Xylan Active Enzymes
Enzyme Immobilization
Purification of XOS
Emerging Sources to Obtain XOS
Biological Functions of XOS
Prebiotic Effect
Digestive Health and Microbiota
XOS
AXOS
Regulation of Lipids and Blood Glucose
Immunomodulation
Anticancerous Activity
Antioxidant Activity
Animal Feed
Benefits in Plants
Food Applications
Other Applications
Conclusion
References
39 Fructooligosaccharides (FOS)
Introduction
Types of FOS
Industrial Production of FOS
Extraction from Plants
Inulin-Type FOS Extraction
Extraction of FOS from Agave
Enzymatic Synthesis
Microbial Production of FOS
Emerging Sources to Obtain FOS
Benefits
Prebiotic Activity
Gastrointestinal Health
Immunomodulation
Anticarcinogenic
Mineral Uptake
Control of Weight and Weight Disorders
Diabetes Control
Conclusions on the Benefits of Consuming FOS
Technological Properties of FOS
Solubility and Water Retention
Stability Toward pH and Temperature
Thickening
Viscosity
Others
Applications/Uses
Food Additive
Nutraceutical Supplements
Chemical and Pharmaceutical Industry Uses
Are FOS Safe to Consume
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
40 Inulin Fiber
Introduction
Inulin Overview
Sources
Obtention
Inulin Extraction
Inulin Synthesis
Classification of Inulin
Chemical Structure
Health Effects
Positive Effects
Diseases Prevention
Recommended Inulin Intakes
Food Applications
Application of Inulin in Baked Goods and Pasta
Inulin in Gels
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
41 Galacto-oligosaccharides
Introduction
Galacto-oligosaccharides as Food Ingredients
Prebiotics and Functional Ingredients
Functional Properties of Galacto-oligosaccharides
Physicochemical Properties of Galacto-oligosaccharides and Their Technological Applications
Galacto-oligosaccharide Manufacturing
β-Galactosidases: Catalysts for the Synthesis of Galacto-oligosaccharides
Synthesis of Galacto-oligosaccharides
Large-Scale Galacto-oligosaccharide Manufacturing
Fructosyl-galacto-oligosaccharides
Analytical Determination of Galacto-oligosaccharides
Concluding Remarks
Cross-References
References
42 Resistant Starch
Introduction
Healthy Effects of Resistant Starches
Resistant Starch in Farinaceous Foods
Resistant Starches for Bread Enrichment: Influence on Dough and Final Product Characteristics
Retrogradation: A Way to Achieve Starch Resistance to Digestion
Resistant Starches in Other Related Products
Resistant Starches in Dairy Foods
Conclusions
References
43 Human Milk Oligosaccharides (HMOS)
Introduction
HMOS Composition
HMOS Biosynthesis
Preparation
Chemical Synthesis
Enzymatic Synthesis
Glycosyltransferases
Glycosidases
Chemoenzymatic Synthesis
Fermentation
Biological Functions of FUCOS and Nonfucosylated Neutral HMOS
Prebiotic Effects
Antiadhesive
Immune System Regulation
Brain Development
Growth Related
Biological Functions of SIAMOS
Health
Brain Development
Growth Related
Commercial Applications
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
44 Lactulose
Introduction
Properties and Application of Lactulose
Chemical Synthesis of Lactulose
Electro-activation Isomerization of Lactulose
Enzymatic Synthesis of Lactulose by Transgalactosylation
Enzymatic Synthesis of Lactulose by Lactose Isomerization
Concluding Remarks
Cross-References
References
45 Pectin Oligosaccharides (POS)
Introduction
Nature and Chemical Structure of POS
Sources of Pectin
Production of POS
Enzymatic Processes
Chemical Methods
Physical Processes
Characterization of Released POS
Prebiotic Compounds and Its Health Benefits
POS as Prebiotics
POS as Functional Ingredients
Antioxidant Activity of POS
Uses of POS in Food Industry
Uses of POS in the Pharmacological Industry
Conclusion
References
Part VII: Bioactive Live Organisms
46 Probiotic Lactic Acid Bacteria
Introduction
Taxonomy of Probiotic LAB
Genetic Characteristics
Physiological and Biochemical Characteristics
Ability of Probiotic LAB to Survive in Adverse Environmental Conditions of Products and GI Conditions
Ability of Probiotic LAB to Attach to Epithelial Cells
Health-Promoting Effects of Probiotic LAB
Antioxidant Effects
Exopolysaccharides (EPS)
Carotenoids
Ferulic Acid
Histamine
Antimicrobial Effects
Immunomodulatory Effects
Anticancer Effects
Therapeutic Effects on GI Disorders
Probiotic LAB from Traditional Products
Production of Probiotic LAB Products: Industrial Aspects
Dairy Probiotic Products
Nondairy Probiotic Products
Safety of Probiotic LAB
Non-pathogenicity
Absence of Virulome
Absence of Antibiotic Resistance
Conclusions
References
47 Non-LAB Bacterial Probiotics
Introduction
Bacillus Spp.
Clostridium
Escherichia coli Nissle 1917
Propionibacterium Spp.
Akkermansia muciniphila
Faecalibacterium prausnitzii
Bacteroides Spp.
Conclusion
Nature Does Not Do Monoculture!
References
48 Probiotic Yeasts
Introduction
Application of Probiotic Yeasts in Food Processing
Dairy Products
Olives and Fermented Olives
Fermented Cereals
Miscellaneous Fermented Foods
Bioactive Metabolites of Probiotic Yeasts
Folate, GABA, and CLA
Prebiotic Oligosaccharides and EPS
Antioxidants
Volatile Compounds
Enzymes
Conclusion
References
Index