Handbook of Biodegradable Materials

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: Fundamentals of Biodegradations
1 Biodegradable Materials: Fundamentals, Importance, and Impacts
Introduction
Fundamentals of Biodegradation
Importance of Biodegradation
Types of Biodegradable Materials
Polymers Biodegradation
Plastics Biodegradation
Other Materials Biodegradation
Impacts of Biodegradation
Environmental Impacts of Biodegradation
Health Impacts of Biodegradation
Industrial and Technological Impacts of Biodegradation
Foods and Agricultural Impacts of Biodegradation
Conclusions
Future Perspectives
References
2 Biodegradation Process: Basics, Factors Affecting, and Industrial Applications
Introduction
Definition of Biodegradation and Biodegradable Materials
Principles of the Biodegradation Process
Abiotic Degradation
Biotic Degradation
Factors Affecting Biodegradation
Abiotic Factors
Biotic Factors
Characteristics of Polymers
Classification of Biodegradable Polymers
Industrial Applications of Biodegradation
Bioremediation of Crude Oil
Industrial Applications of Anaerobic Digestions
Organic Waste Treatment and Resource Recovery
Production and Applications of Biogas
Production and Applications of Digestate
Conclusions
Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
3 Fundamentals of Biodegradation Process
Introduction
Fundamental Biodegradation Reactions
Biodegradation of Organic Pollutants
Microbial Interaction with Inorganic Pollutants
Biotransformation of Metals
Metabolic Mechanisms in Biodegradation
Metabolic Biodegradation
Cometabolic Biodegradation
Factors Affecting Microbial Degradation
Environmental Factors
Organic Matter Content
Nitrogen
Redox Conditions
Biological Factors
Other Environmental Factors
pH
Salinity
Temperature
Biodegradation of Organic Pollutants
Aliphatics
Alkanes
Halogenated Aliphatics
Alicyclics
Aromatics
Dioxins and PCBs
Heterocyclic Compounds
Pesticides
Biodegradation by Genetically Modified Microbes
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
4 Anaerobic Biodegradation: The Anaerobic Digestion Process
Introduction
Anaerobic Biodegradation
Anaerobic Digestion Is the Principal Anaerobic Biodegradation Process
Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic Digestion: Concept and Models
Microbiology and Metabolic Pathways of Anaerobic Digestion
Hydrolysis
Acidogenesis
Acetogenesis
Methanogenesis
Energy and Economic Recovery of Biogas Produced by Anaerobic Digestion
What Is Biogas?
Roles of the Constituent Gases of Biogas
Purification of Produced Biogas
Anaerobic Digestion Assessment Techniques
Biochemical Methane Potential
Determination of Biochemical Methane Potential
The Kinetics of Biogas and Methane Production
Factors Affecting Anaerobic Digestion
Temperature
Potential of Hydrogen
Ammonia
Sulfide
Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio
Load and Organic Composition
Pretreatment
Design of the Digesters
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
References
5 Recent Advances in Microbial Biodegradation
Introduction
Microbial Biodegradation
Bacterial-Mediated Biodegradation
Fungal-Mediated Biodegradation
Algal-Mediated Biodegradation
Enzymes Involved in Microbial Biodegradation
Factors Affecting Microbial Degradation Process
Moisture
pH
Temperature
Microbes
Exogenous Versus Indigenous
Consortium Versus Individual (Pure) Microbe
Adaptation of Microorganisms to the Toxic Environment
Application of Microbial Biodegradation
Microbial Degradation of Plastics
Microbial Degradation of Pesticides
Microbial Degradation of Antibiotic
Nanobiodegradation
Nanoparticles Enhance Microbial Growth
Nanoparticles for Immobilization of Microorganisms
Conclusions
Future Perspectives
References
6 Concept and Significance of Microbial Consortium in the Biodegradation Process
Introduction
Microbial Infallibility Hypothesis
Roles of Microorganisms in Biodegradation
Microbial Consortium
Bacteria
Fungi
Algae
Enzymes
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
7 Mechanism of Microbial Biodegradation: Secrets of Biodegradation
Introduction
Microbial Biodegradation
Mechanism of Microbial Biodegradation
The Absorption Mechanism
The Breakdown Mechanism
Types of Bioremediation
Air Bioremediation
Soil Bioremediation
Water Bioremediation
Bacterial Biodegradation
Aerobic Biodegradation
Anaerobic Biodegradation
Fungal Biodegradation
Algal Biodegradation
Yeast Biodegradation
Factors Affecting Microbial Degradation
Water
Oxygen
Temperature
Light
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
References
8 Types of Microorganisms for Biodegradation
Introduction
Polymer-Degrading Microorganisms
Pesticide-Degrading Microorganisms
Mechanisms of Biodegradation
Biodeterioration
Microbial Biofilm Formation
Biofragmentation
Mineralization
Involvement of Microbial Enzymes in the Biodegradation Process
Factors That Affect the Biodegradation Process
Microbial Species and Their Metabolic Activities
Substrate Characteristics
Environmental Factors
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
9 Role of Microorganisms in Biodegradation of Pollutants
Introduction
Bacterial Biodegradations
Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacterial Degradation
Microbial Role in Nitrogen Fixation
Microbial Role in Phosphorous Solubilization
Growth Hormone Regulation by Plant
Protection from Phytopathogenic Microorganisms
Microfungi and Mycorrhiza Biodegradation
Filamentous Fungi
Yeast Biodegradation
Role of Algae and Protozoa in the Biodegradation Process
Factors Affecting Microbial Degradation
Biological Factors
Environmental Factors
Bioremediation and Biodegradation
Degradation by Genetically Engineered Microorganisms
Role of GEM in Bioremediation
GEM Application in Biodegradation of Dye Pollutants
GEM in Industrial Food Enzyme Production
Other Applications
Microbial Enzymes in Biodegradation
Oxidoreductases
Hydrolases
Conclusions
Future Perspective
References
Part II: Polymer Biodegradation
10 Biodegradable Polymers
Introduction
Biodegradable Polymers Derived from Petroleum Resources
Biodegradable Polymers Derived from Natural Resources
Factors Affecting the Biodegradation
Conclusions
Future Prospective
Cross-References
References
11 Biodegradable Polymer Challenges
Introduction
Biodegradable Materials: Challenges and Opportunities
Biodegradable Polymers
Polyhydroxyalkanoates
Polybutylene Succinate
Polylactic Acid/Polylactide
Polycarbonates
Potential Challenges and Mitigation
Modification in Synthetic Strategies for Biodegradable Polymers
Banning of Problematic Conventional Plastics
Implementation of Extended Producer Responsibility
Implementation of Deposit Refund Schemes
Conclusions
Future Prospectives
References
12 Sustainable Biopolymers
Introduction
Biodegradable Polymers
Biofibers and Their Properties
Plant-Based Biofibers
Lignocellulose
Cellulose
Cellulose Nanocrystallites
Animal-Based Biofibers
Biopolymers for Tissue Engineering
Chitin/Chitosan
Collagen
Hyaluronic Acid
Elastin
Polylactic Acid, Polyglycolic Acid, and Their Copolymers
Poly(ε-caprolactone)
Poly(orthoesters)
Polyphosphazene
Polydioxanone
Durability of Biocomposite Polymers
Conclusion
Future Prospective
Cross-References
References
13 Biocompatibility of Nanomaterials Reinforced Polymer-Based Nanocomposites
Introduction
Synthesis and Fabrication Methods of Polymer Nanocomposites
Preparation Methods of Polymer Nanocomposites
Intercalation Methods
Melt Intercalation Method
In Situ Polymerization Method
Sol-Gel Method
Direct Mixing of Polymer and Nanofillers
Melt Compounding
Solvent Method
Polymer Nanocomposite Properties
Electrical and Dynamic Mechanical Properties
Thermal Stability
Other Properties of Polymer-Based Nanocomposites
Polymer-Nanocomposite Characterization
Biocompatibility and Non-toxicity
Biodegradable Polymers
Biodegradation by Microorganisms
Biodeterioration
Methods of the Biodeterioration Process
Physical
Chemicals
Enzymes
Assessment of Biodeterioration
Bio-fragmentation
Assessment of Bio-fragmentation
Assimilation
Biodegradation by Body Fluids
Factors Affecting Decomposition Rate of Biopolymeric Substance
Chemical and Enzymatic Oxidations
Enzymatic Hydrolysis
Enzymatic Hydrolysis Mechanism
Examples of Enzymatic Hydrolysis
Mechanism of the Biodegradation Process
Examples of Polymer-Nanocomposites Biodegradation
Biodegradation of Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate)/Organophilic Montmorillonite Nanocomposite
Biodegradation of Polylactic Acid Accompanied by Nanocomposites
Biodegradation of Poly(ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites
Biodegradation of Graphene Oxide-Bio-chitosan Nanocomposite
Aliphatic Polyesters Biotic and Abiotic Degradation
Degradation of Poly(hydroxybutyrate) and Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate)
Biodegradation Products
Applications of Polymers Nanocomposites
Wound Dressing
Drug Delivery
Bone Tissue Engineering
Chitosan-Based Nanohydroxyapatite Composite
Other Applications
Applicability and Safety of Polymer-Nanocomposites
Conclusions
Future Perspectives
References
14 Electrically Conducting Smart Biodegradable Polymers and Their Applications
Introduction
Biomaterials
Conducting Polymers
Synthesis of Conductive Polymers
Chemical Methods
Electrochemical Methods
Photochemical Polymerization
Metathesis Methods
Concentrated Emulsion Method
Solid-State Methods
Plasma Polymerization
Pyrolysis Method
Biodegradable Conducting Polymers
Synthesis of Biodegradable Conducting Polymers
Types of Biodegradable Conducting Polymers
Block Polymer
Graft Polymers
Polymeric Composites
Polymer Hydrogels
Applications of Biodegradable Conducting Polymers
Electronic Devices, Sensors, and Actuators
Polylactide
Poly(vinyl alcohol)
Polyvinylpyrrolidone
Cellulose
Electrochromic Applications
Water and Wastewater Treatment
Energy Conservation and Storage
Biomedical Applications
Tissue Engineering for Skin
Tissue Engineering for Heart
Tissue Engineering for Nerve
Tissue Engineering for Skeletal Muscles
Tissue Engineering for Bone
Tissue Engineering for Cancer Treatment
Conclusion
Future Prospective
References
15 Biodegradable Polysaccharides Nanocomposites
Introduction
Polymer Nanocomposites and Their Chemistry
The Interface´s Role
Polymer Nanocomposites as Matrices for Biomolecules
Polymer Nanocomposites: Methods of Preparation
Preparation from Solution
Preparation by Melt Mixing
Preparation via In Situ Polymerization
In Situ Synthesis Nanoparticle Preparation
Preparation by Inorganic Synthesis and In Situ Polymerization
High Barrier Characteristics of Polymer Nanocomposites
Polymer Nanocomposites of Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides from Lignocellulose Plants and Woods Sources
Cellulose Ethers
Cellulose Esters
Cellulose Micro (Nano) Fibrillated Structures
Hemicelluloses
Starch
Marine Biomass Polysaccharides
Chitosan and Chitosan Derivatives
Alginates
Semolina with Embedded Nanokaolin
Cellulose
Probiotic Cellulose Antibacterial Activity
Polymers Biodegradability After the Formation of Nanocomposite/Composite
Chitosan
Starch and Thermoplastic Starch
Thermoplastic Starch with Silver Nanoparticles
Thermoplastic Starch with Talc Nanoparticles
Biodegradable Composites with Nanosized Fillers
Lignocellulosic Fibers
Cellulose Nano-crystallites Are a Type of Crystal (Bacterial Cellulose)
Cellulose That Has Been Regenerated
Other Varieties of Bio Fibers Are Available
Migration of Various Nanoparticles into Diverse Foodstuffs
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
References
16 Biodegradable Polymers for Industrial Applications
Introductions
Biodegradable Natural Polymers
Technological Applications of Biodegradable Natural Polymers
Chitin/Chitosan
Sodium Alginates
Cellulose
Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers
Technological Applications of Biodegradable Synthetic Polymers
Polyvinyl Alcohol
Polyglycolic Acid
Polylactic Acid
Poly(lactide-co-glycolide)
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
Part III: Plastic Biodegradation
17 Biodegradable Plastics as a Solution to the Challenging Situation of Plastic Waste Management
Introduction
Properties of Biodegradable Plastics
Synthesis of Biodegradable Plastics
Process of Biodegradation
Types of Biodegradable Plastics
Applications of Biodegradable Plastics
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
18 Biodegradable Plastics Based on Algal Polymers: Recent Advances and Applications
Introduction
Alginate Bioplastics
Carrageenan Bioplastics
Agar Bioplastics
Ulvan-Based Bioplastics
Porphyran-Based Bioplastics
Fucoidan-Based Bioplastics
Polyhydroxyalkanoates Bioplastics
Bioplastics Based on Algal Proteins
Bioplastics Based on Algal Cellulose
Bioplastics Based on Algal Starch
Bioplastics Based on Algal Extracellular Polysaccharides
Applications
Food Packaging and Coatings
Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications
Water Purification and Desalination
Mulching Films
Use of Bioplastics in Electronic Devices
Electromagnetic Interference Shielding
Electricity Conduction
Batteries
Fuel Cells
Fire-Retardant Bioplastics
Other Applications
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
References
19 Emerging and Advanced Technologies in Biodegradable Plastics for Sustainability
Introduction
Current Issues Regarding Conventional Plastics
Waste Management Options for Bioplastics
Structure, Synthesis, and Properties of Biodegradable Polymers
Starch Plastics
Cellulose
Soybeans
Polylactic Acid
Biodegradable Plastics Versus Conventional Plastics
Biodegradation Mechanisms of Plastics
Aerobic and Anaerobic Biodegradation
Emerging and Advanced Technologies in Biodegradable Plastic Research
Future Direction, Challenges, and Role in the Sustainable Development of Biodegradable Plastics
Green Economy and Principles for Sustainable Biomaterials
Sustainable Design for Product Development
Conclusions
Future Prospective
References
Uncategorized References
20 Plastics Biodegradation and Biofragmentation
Introduction
Biodegradable Plastics and Bio-Based Plastics
Biodegradation of Plastics
Degradable Plastic
Compostable Plastic
Biodegradable Plastic
Biodiversity and Occurrence of Polymer-Degrading Microorganisms
The Background Chemistry of Bioplastic Biodegradation
Factors Affecting the Biodegradability of Plastics
The Physical Properties of the Polymer
The Chemical Properties of the Polymer
The Polymer Additives
Enzyme Characteristics
Exposure Conditions
Methodology for Testing Plastic Biodegradability
Variation in Biodegradability Tests
The Laboratory Conditions Versus the Unmanaged Ecosystem
Stages of Biodegradation
Biodeterioration
Abiotic Deterioration
Biotic Deterioration
Biofragmentation
Microbial Assimilation and Mineralization
Waste Management Options for Bioplastic
Recycling
Energy Recovery by Incineration
Landfill
Treatment for Biological Waste (Anaerobic Digestion or Composting)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Bioplastics
Advantages
Disadvantages
Conclusion
Future Perspective
References
Part IV: Other Materials Biodegradation
21 Biodegradable Inorganic Nanocomposites
Introduction
Bionanocomposites from Green Resources
Classification of Biodegradable Inorganic Nanocomposites
Nanofillers Particles
Carbon Nanostructures
Nano-hydroxyapatite
Nanocellulose Fibres
Enhanced Properties
Tunable Biodegradability
Antibacterial Activity
Mechanical Properties
Thermal Properties
Synthesis of Biodegradable Inorganic Nanocomposites
Wet Process
Dry Process
Potential Biomedical Applications
Scaffold Material for Bone
Stem Cells
Bionanocomposites Interaction with Biological Entities
Conclusions
Future Prospective
References
22 Biodegradation of Carbon Nanotubes
Introduction
Classification of Carbon Nanotubes
Carbon Nanotubes Structures and Morphology
Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes
Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes
Properties of Carbon Nanotubes
Chemical Properties
Physical Properties
Atomic Structure
Thickness
Length
Specific Surface Area
Bulk Density
Thermal and Optical Properties
Electrical Characteristics
Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes
Arc Discharge
Laser Ablation
Chemical Vapor Deposition
Applications of Carbon Nanotubes
Biomedical Field
Nanoelectronics
Membranes Filtration and Adsorption
Environmental Impact of Carbon Nanotubes
Importance of Carbon Nanotubes Degradation
Methods of Carbon Nanotubes Degradation
Thermal Degradation
Biodegradation
Microbial Degradation
Enzymatic Degradation
Economic Cost of Carbon Nanotubes Degradation
Conclusions
Future Perspectives
References
23 Biodegradation, Biosynthesis, Isolation, and Applications of Chitin and Chitosan
Introduction
General Characteristics of Chitin and Chitosan
Chemical Structure and Properties
Chitin Biosynthesis
Isolation of Chitin at Industrial Level
Chitin Degradation
Significance of Chitin and Chitosan in Biomedical and Nanotechnology
Tissue Engineering
Wound Healing
Cancer Diagnosis
Chitin- and Chitosan-Based Dressings
Chitin- and Chitosan-Based Applications in Ophthalmology
Antibacterial Properties
Antithrombogenic and Hemostatic Materials
Antiaging Cosmetics
Antitumor Activity
Vaccine Adjuvant
Decomposition, Regeneration, Repair, and Damage of Cuticle
Conclusion
Future Prospects
References
Part V: Environmental Impacts of Biodegradation
24 Environmental Impact of Biodegradation
Introduction
Environmental Impacts of Biodegradation on Soil Fertility
Biodegradation of Plastics/Bioplastics
Biodegradation of Herbicides, Pesticides, and Insecticides
Biodegradation Agricultural Crop Residues
Biodegradation of Oil
Environmental Impacts of Biodegradation on Air Purification
Environmental Impacts of Biodegradation on Water Purification
Biodegradation and Improvement of Productivity of Plants and Animals
Biodegradation: Ecosystem Balancing Viewpoint
Biodegradation and Facilities of Human Life
Conclusions
Future Prospective
References
25 Biodegradable Nanocelluloses for Removal of Hazardous Organic Pollutants from Wastewater
Introduction
Basic Types of Biodegradable Nanocelluloses
Overview of Synthesis Methods
Mechanical Methods
Chemical Methods
Enzymatic Method
Characterization of Biodegradable Nanocelluloses
Properties of Biodegradable Nanocelluloses
High Specific Surface Area and Surface Tension
High Aspect Ratio
High Chemical Resistance
Good Mechanical Strength and Rigidity
Surface Functionalization
Biodegradable Nanocelluloses for the Removal of Organic Pollutants
Removal of Dye Pollutants
Organic Compounds
Pesticides
Fertilizers
Drugs
Conclusions
Future Perspective
References
26 Biodegradation of Azo Dye Pollutants Using Microorganisms
Introduction
Importance of Safe Water and Wastewater Treatment
Types of Water Pollutants
Microbial Pollutants
Inorganic Pollutants
Organic Pollutants
Phenols
Pesticides
Food Processing Waste
Pharmaceuticals
Cosmetics
Oils
Detergents and Surfactants
Textile Dyes and Azo Dyes
Biodegradation of Textile Manufacturing-Generated Dyes Using Microorganisms
Azo Dye Biodegradation Using Bacteria
Azo Dye Biodegradation Using Fungi
Azo Dye Biodegradation Using Yeast
Algae Use for Azo Dye Biodegradation
Conclusions
Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
27 Impacts of Biodegradable Plastic on the Environment
Introduction
Types of Biodegradable Plastics
Biobased Biodegradable Plastics
Polylactic Acid or Polylactide
Polyhydroxy Alkanoates
Cellulose-Based Plastics (Polysaccharide Derivatives)
Protein-Based Plastics (Poly Amino Acid)
Fossil-Based Biodegradable Plastics
Poly Butyrate Adipate Terephthalate
Polycaprolactone
Polybutylene Succinate
Polyvinyl Alcohol
Production of Biodegradable Plastic
Biodegradable Plastics Produced with Renewable Raw Materials
Biodegradable Plastics Produced with Microorganisms
Polyhydroxy Alkanoates
Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate Synthesis
Cyanobacterial Systems and Their Capability of Producing PHB
Detection and Analysis of Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate
Biodegradability and Biological Considerations of Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate
Factors that Impact the Plastics´ Biodegradability
Impacts of Biodegradable Plastic Mulches on Soil Health
Plastic Films for Agricultural Mulching
Assessment of the Ecotoxicity of Biodegradable Plastic Mulches
Biodegradability of Plastics in the Environment
Waste Management Options of Biodegradable Plastics
Advantages and Disadvantages of Biodegradable Plastics
Advantages of Using Biodegradable Plastics
Reduction of the Amount of Waste Produced
Biodegradable Plastics Are Simple to Recycle
Less Energy Consumption
Biodegradable Plastic Products Are Disassembled by Bacteria that Occur Naturally
Lower Petroleum Consumption
Compostability
Biodegradable Plastic Products Can Mix with Our Traditional Products
Disadvantages of Biodegradable Plastics
Biodegradable Plastics Contain Metals
Biodegradable Plastics Produce Methane in Landfills
Need for Costly Equipment for Both Processing and Recycling
Biodegradable Products Come at a Higher Cost
Biodegradable Plastics Do Not Solve Ocean Pollution Problems
Food Packaging Applications
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
28 Genetically Engineered Bacteria Used in Bioremediation Applications
Introduction
Recombinant DNA Techniques for the Development of Bioremediation
Genome-Editing Tools for the Development of Bioremediation
Bioremediation of Heavy Metals by Genetically Engineering Bacteria
Nickel
Mercury
Chromium
Bioremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons by Genetically Engineering Bacteria
Bioremediation of Pesticides by Genetically Engineering Bacteria
Metagenomics and Bioremediation
Transcriptomics in Bioremediation
Proteomics in Bioremediation
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
29 Biowaste Materials for Advanced Biodegradable Packaging Technology
Introduction
Food Packaging Materials
Environmental Impact of Non-biodegradable Materials
Environmental Impact of Biowastes
The Processes of Converting the Biowastes into Valuable Products
Thermochemical Conversion
Biochemical Conversion
The Biowaste-Based Materials for Biodegradable Food Packaging
Biopolymers for Food Packaging
Natural Biomass Sources for Food Packaging
Development and Enhancement Techniques for Biodegradable Films and Coatings
Conclusions
Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
30 Biodegradation of Pollutants
Introduction
Definition of Biodegradation
Historical and Ecological Context
Types of Bioremediation
In Situ Bioremediation
Ex Situ Bioremediation
Phytoremediation
Phytoaccumulation
Phytofiltration
Phytostabilization
Phytovolatilization
Phytodegradation
Microorganism Remediation
Microbial Biodegradation
Biodegradable Contaminants
Role of Microorganisms in Biodegradation of Pollutants
Bacterial Biodegradation
Aerobic Degradation
Anaerobic Biodegradation
Microfungi and Mycorrhiza Degradation
Yeast Degradation
Fungi Degradation
Algae and Protozoa Degradation
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
Part VI: Medical and Health Impacts of Biodegradation
31 Biodegradable Nanocomposite as Advanced Bone Tissue Scaffold
Introduction
Bone Tissue Engineering
Structure and Properties of Bone
Bone Architecture
Bone Cells
Bone Defects and Healing Mechanism
Scaffolds
Properties of an Ideal Scaffold
Biocompatibility
Biodegradability
Bioactivity
Scaffold Micro-architecture
Mechanical Properties
Scaffold Fabrication Methods
Conventional Scaffold Fabrication Techniques
Solvent Casting/Particulate Leaching
Gas Foaming
Freeze-Drying
Phase Separation
Electrospinning
3D Printing Techniques
Stereolithography
Fused Deposition Modeling
Selective Laser Sintering
3D Bioprinting
Inkjet Bioprinting
Laser-Assisted Bioprinting
Micro-Valve Bioprinting
Extrusion Bioprinters
4D Printing
Biodegradable Materials for Bone Scaffolds
Metals
Biodegradable Magnesium Composite Scaffolds
Biodegradable Iron Composite Scaffolds
Biodegradable Zinc Composite Scaffolds
Biodegradable Strontium Composite Scaffolds
Bioceramics
Hydroxyapatite
Tri-calcium Phosphate
Di-calcium Phosphate
Calcium Sulfate and Silicate-Based Bioceramics
Bioactive Glasses
Polymers
Natural Polymers
Collagen
Chitosan
Hyaluronic Acid
Fibrin
Silk
Synthetic Polymer
Polycaprolactone
Polylactic Acid
Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid)/PLGA
Biodegradable Nanocomposites Scaffolds Applied in Bone Tissue Engineering
Biodegradable Nanostructured Calcium-Phosphate Based Composites
Nanostructured Bioglasse-Based Bone Scaffolds
Bioglass-Metal Nano-composite Scaffolds
Bioglass-Bioceramics Nanocomposite Scaffolds
Bioglass-Polymers Nanocomposite Scaffolds
Hydrogels
Piezoelectric Polymer-Ceramic Composites
Inorganic Piezoelectric Materials: Piezoelectric Ceramics
Piezoelectric Polymers
Piezoelectric Ceramic-Polymer Composite Materials
Electric Conductive Nanocomposites
Magnetically Responsive Composites
3D Printed and Biomorphic Ceramics
Scaffolds Synthesized by 3D Printing Systems
Scaffolds Synthesized Through Biomorphic Transformation
Composite Nanostructured Delivery Systems
Direct Incorporation of Nanodelivery Systems in 3D Constructs
Surface Modification and Cross-Linking of Nano-delivery Systems to 3D Constructs
Multifunctional Nanofiber Scaffolds as Drug Delivery Systems
Intelligent Materials and Modular Fabrication
Barriers to Clinical Translation
Scientific and Technological Challenges
Translational Challenges
Ethical Issues
Conclusions
Future Prospective
Cross-References
References
32 Biodegradable Polymers for Cardiac Tissue Engineering
Introduction
Cardiac Tissue Engineering
Types of Biodegradable Polymers in Cardiac Tissue Engineering
Silk Fibroin
Collagen
Chitosan
Alginate
Fibrin
Matrigel
Hyaluronic Acid
Properties of Polymers
Properties of Scaffolds in Cardiac Tissue Engineering
Bioactivity
Biocompatibility
Biodegradability
Porosity
Morphology
Mechanical
Fabrication Methods of Biodegradable Polymers
Melting-Based Technique
Solvent-Based Technique
Solvent Casting or Particle Leaching
Freeze-Drying
Thermal-Induced Phase Separation
Electrospinning
Gas Foaming Technique
Rapid Prototyping Technique
Conclusion
Future Perspective
References
33 Biodegradable Polymers in Biomedical Applications: A Focus on Skin and Bone Regeneration
Introduction
Scaffold Main Features for Biomedical Applications
Synthesis of Natural Biodegradable Polymers
Collagens
Chitosan
Fibrin
Hyaluronic Acid
Alginate
Starch
Gelatin
Biomedical Applications of Natural Biodegradable Polymers
Skin Regeneration and Wound Healing
Bone Regeneration
Implants
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
References
34 Hybrid Biodegradable Polymeric Scaffolds for Cardiac Tissue Engineering
Introduction
Current Regeneration Strategies for Cardiac Tissue Engineering
Scaffolds and Cells
Engineering of the Heart Tissue
Scaffoldless Cell Sheet/Cell Patch Technology
Biological Cell Assembly
Decellularization of the Cardiac Matrix
Neovascularization Strategy
In Vitro Vascularization
In Vivo Vascularization
Mechanism of Degradation
Degradation of Natural Biodegradation Polymers
Degradation of Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers
Biodegradation Polymers Employed for Cardiac Tissue Engineering
Natural Biodegradation Polymers
Proteins
Collagen
Gelatin
Fibrin
Matrigel
Polysaccharides
Chitin/Chitosan
Alginate
Synthetic Biodegradation Polymers
Poly(Lactic Acid) (PLA)
Poly(Glycolic Acid) (PGA)
Poly(Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid) (PLGA)
Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)
Polycaprolactone (PCL)
Polyurethanes (PUs)
Natural/Synthetic Hybrid Biodegradation Polymers
Poly(Lactic Acid)/Chitosan
Gelatin/Polycaprolactone/Graphene
Titanium Dioxide-Polyethylene Glycol/Chitosan
Collagen/Carbon Nanotubes
Collagen/Gold Nanoparticles
Collagen/Fibrin
Gelatin/Hyaluronic Acid
Fibrin/Polyethylene Glycol
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
References
35 Biodegradation Method of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products
Introduction
Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products
Wastewater Treatment Plants and Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products
Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products and Human Interactions
Biological Transformation of PPCPs
The Parent Compounds
Soil
Soil Aquifer Treatment and Activated Sludge Treatment
Bacterial Species Included in MFC A/O Systems Biodegradation of PPCPs and Aromatic Compounds
Biodegradability of Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products
Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products Biodegradability Categories
Factors Affecting Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products Biodegradability
Methods to Analysis Biodegradability
Ready Biodegradability: OECD 301
DOC Die-Away Test (ISO 7827, OECD 301 a)
CO2 Evolution Test (ISO 9439, OECD 301 B) - Modified Sturm Test
MITI (OECD 301 c)
Closed Bottle Test (CBT) (ISO 10707, OECD 301 D)
Modified OECD Screening (OECD 301 E)
Manometric Respirometry Test (ISO 9408, OECD 301 F)
Combined CO2/DOC Test
Inherent Biodegradability: OECD 302
Semi-Continuous Activated Sludge Test (SCAS): OECD 302 a
Zahn-Wellens/EMPA: OECD 302 B
Modified Zahn-Wellens Test
Automated Determination of Biodegradability
Other Methods
Metabolism
Diclofenac
Bacillus Subtilis and Brevibacillus Laterosporus
Enterobacter Hormaechei D15
Labrys Portucalensis F11
Rhodococcus Ruber IEGM 346
Ibuprofen
Sphingomonas sp. Ibu-2 Strain
Variovorax Ibu-1
Bacillus Thuringiensis B1
Carbamazepine
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
References
36 Biodegradable Materials from Natural Origin for Tissue Engineering and Stem Cells Technologies
Introduction
Bioprinting Technologies and Cell Sheet Tissue Engineering
3D Bioprinting
4D Bioprinting
3D Engineered Cardiac Tissue Models
Natural Polymers-Based Biocomposites: State of the Art, New Challenges, and Opportunities
The Characteristics of Biodegradable Polymers
Carboxymethyl Cellulose
Preparation of CMC-Based Scaffolds for Use in Tissue Engineering
Chitosan-Based Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering Applications
Tissue Engineering Applications
Cardiovascular Disease
Cardiovascular Tissue Engineering
Cardiac Tissue Engineering Products Advancing to the Clinic
Biomaterial Scaffolds for Cardiac Tissue Engineering
The Future of Cardiac Regeneration by Tissue Engineering Technologies
Biomaterials and Nanomedicine for Bone Repair and Bone Regeneration Strategies
Nanoparticle-Based Strategies
Scaffold-Based Strategies
Role of Growth Factors for Bone Regeneration
Scaffolds for GF Delivery
Biomaterial Scaffolds and Stem Cell for Skin Tissue Engineering in Wound Healing
Combination Therapy: Biomaterials and Stem Cells in Wound Healing and Regeneration
Conclusions
Future Perspectives
References
37 Medical Waste Biodegradation
Introduction
The Environmental Impact of Medical Waste
Current Technology to Treat Medical Waste
Landfilling
Incineration
Alternative Ways to Solve the Medical Waste Issue
The 3R Principle (Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle)
Education
Utilization of Biodegradable Materials
Biodegradable Polymer for Face Shields and Face Masks
Cellulose
Polybutylene Succinate
Polybutylene Adipate Terephthalate
Polycaprolactone
Biodegradable Materials for Face Masks
Electrospun Encapsulated Polylactic Acid-Based Nanomembrane
Gluten
Chitosan
Starch
The Effectiveness of Biodegradable Face Masks, Face Shields, and Hand Gloves in Preventing Viruses, Bacteria, and Particulate ...
Conclusions
Future Perspectives
References
38 Biodegradable Mg Alloys for Orthopedic Implant Materials
Introduction
Properties of Mg and Biodegradable Mg Alloys
Mg - Al alloys
Mg - Zn alloys
Mg - Ca alloys
Mg - Zr alloys
Mg - Sr alloys
Mg - REEs alloys
Surface Treatments of Biodegradable Mg Alloys
Chemical Conversion
Anodization
Micro-Arc Oxidation (MAO)
Physical Vapor Deposition
Ion Implantation
Electrochemical Deposition
Conclusions
Future Prospective
References
Part VII: Foods and Agricultural Impacts of Biodegradation
39 Biochar and Chicken Manure Compost
Introduction
Production of Biochar
Pyrolysis
Torrefaction
Hydrothermal Carbonization
Gasification
Stability of Biochar
Fresh Chicken Manure
Environmental Issues
Pharmaceutical Residues
Harmful Microorganisms
Inorganic and Organic Contaminants
Chicken Manure Compost as Fertilizers
Factors of Aerobic Composting
Surrounding Temperature
Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio
Bulking Agent
Oxygen Level
Soil pH
Moisture Content
The Texture of Raw Materials
Composting Duration
Composting Agents
Chicken Manure Composting Method
Pile Composting
Sheet Composting
Effects of Biochar in Manure Compost
Nutrient Supply
Water-Holding Capacity
Soil pH
Soil Biological Process
Biochar Mitigates Pesticides
Biochar Mitigates Microorganisms
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
References
40 Biodegradation Versus Composting
Introduction
Composting Technique
In-Vessel Composting
Windrow Composting
Vermicomposting
Static Pile Composting
Anaerobic Digestion
Factors that Affect the Rate of Composting
Temperature
The Oxygen and pH Levels
Moisture Content
Composting Advantages
Major Chemical Elements in Composting
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Microbes Used in Composting
Composting and Biodegradation Challenges
Conclusions
Future Perspectives
References
41 Biodegradable Food Packaging Materials
Introduction
Biopolymers
Polysaccharides-Based Biopolymers
Starch
Cellulose
Protein-Based Biopolymers
Polyesters/PHAs-Based Biopolymers
Chemically Synthesized Biopolymers
Polylactic Acid
Polycaprolactone
Characterization of Biofilms
Fundamentals of Food Packaging
Preparation Methodologies for Biofilms
Casting Methodology
Film Blowing Methodology
Extrusion Methodology
Properties Associated with the Biofilms
Biodegradation
Biodegradation Mechanism
Biodegradation Tests
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
References
42 Ecological Sustainability of Biodegradable Materials for Food Healthy Storage
Introduction
Polymers-Based Food Packaging Materials
Sustainable Polymers from Renewable Resources
Biodegradable Polymers
Types of Biodegradable Food Packaging Materials
Natural Biopolymers
Polysaccharides
Cellulose
Starch
Chitin and Chitosan
The Proteins
Corn Zein
Wheat Gluten
Soy Protein
Collagen and Gelatine
Milk Protein
Polymers from Biomonomers
The Architecture of PLA
Polymerization by Ring-Opening
Condensation Polymerization
Properties of Poly (Lactic Acid)
Microorganisms´ Polymers
Opportunities and Limits to the Use of Edible-Biodegradable Films in the Food Industry
Biodegradability of the Polymers
Advances in Biodegradable Food Packaging Materials
Future Prospective
Conclusion
Cross-Reference
References
43 Vegetable Oil-Based Biodegradable Alkyd Materials for Eco-friendly Coating Applications
Introduction
Alkyd Resins
Advanced Eco-friendly Alkyds Coatings Toward a Greener Environment
Waterborne Alkyd Coatings
Coatings Made of Hyperbranched Alkyds
Advanced Hyperbranched Alkyd Nanocomposites
Graphene-Based Alkyds
Graphene-Based Coatings
Graphene-Alkyd Nanocomposite Coatings
Conclusions
Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
Part VIII: Industrial and Technological Impacts of Biodegradation
44 Biodegradation of Industrial Materials
Introduction
The Concept of Biodegradation
Requisite of Biodegradation
Biodegradation Mechanism
Abiotic Biodegradation
Biotic Biodegradation
Aerobic Biodegradation
Anaerobic Biodegradation
Requirement for Biodegradation
Factors Affecting Biodegradation
Biological Factors
Rates of Contaminant Degradation
Extent of Contaminant Degradation
Temperature
Moisture
pH
Environmental Factors
Adsorption and Absorption
Contaminant Migration in Groundwater
Bioavailability
Soil Matric Potential
Redox Potential
Biodegradable Industrial Materials´ Potential
Plastics
Microbiological Plastic Degradation Mechanism
Biodeterioration
Biofragmentation
Assimilation
Mineralization
Classification of Biodegradable Plastics
Bio-Based Biodegradable Plastics
Fossil-Based Biodegradable Plastics
Bacterial Biodegradation and Bioconversion of Industrial Lignocellulosic Streams
Packaging Materials Based on Biodegradable Polymers and Nanocomposite
Ecological Isolation of Wastewater Polluted by Industrial Oil
Biodegradation of Azo Dyes
Biodegradation of Industrial Waste Streams
Biodegradation of Composite Materials
Current Scenario Regarding the Research on the Biodegradation of Industrial Materials
Conclusions
Future Prospects
Cross-References
References
45 Biodegradable Textiles, Recycling, and Sustainability Achievement
Introduction
Plastic Pollution and Environmental Hazards
Biodegradation Process
Definitions of Biodegradation
Biodegradation Conditions
Aerobic Biodegradation
Anaerobic Biodegradation
Biodegradability of Fibers and Films in the Textile Field
Wool
Cotton
Flax Fibers
Hemp Fibers
Jute Fibers
Ramie Fibers
Kenaf Fibers
Sisal Fibers
Abaca Fibers
Lyocell Fibers
Other Biodegradable and Sustainable Fibers
Poly(Lactic Acid)
Polyacrylonitrile
Biodegradability of Cellulose Fibers in Textile Blends
Biodegradable Nonwovens and Their Applications
Biodegradable Fibers in Geotextiles
Enzymatic Hydrolysis During Biodegradability
The Mechanisms of Enzymatic Reactions on Cellulose Fibers
The Mechanisms of Enzymatic Hydrolysis on Proteinic Fibers
Evaluation of Textile Biodegradability
Enzymatic Hydrolysis
Weight Loss
Observation of a Surface Change
Changes in the Internal Structure
Tensile Properties (Breaking Load)
Textile Fibers and Fabrics Recycling Procedures
Sustainability in the Textile and Clothing Field
Conclusions
Future Perspectives
References
46 Biodegradation of Crude Oil and Biodegradation of Surfactants
Introduction
Aerobic Biodegradation
Anaerobic Biodegradation
Crude Oil Biodegradation
Overview
Aerobic Degradation of Hydrocarbons
Anaerobic Degradation of Hydrocarbons
Surfactant Biodegradation
Overview
Primary and Ultimate Biodegradation of Surfactants
Types and Biodegradation of Surfactants
Anionic Surfactants
Cationic Surfactants
Non-ionic Surfactants
Zwitterionic or Amphoteric Surfactants
Biosurfactants
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
47 Biodegradation for Metal Extraction
Introduction
Biodegradable Chelating Agent
Effective Use of Biodegradable Chelants Versus EDTA
Biodegradable Aminopolycarboxylate
Iminodisuccinic Acid
Methylglycinediacetic Acid
Ethylenediamine-N, N′-Disuccinic Acid
Nitrilotriacetic Acid
Tetrasodium Glutamate Diacetate
Biodegradable Organic Acid
Factors that Affect the Metal Extraction Efficiency
pH Condition
Concentration of Chelating Agent
Will the Heavy Metal Pollution Remain Even though the Chelants Used Are Biodegradable?
Phytoremediation
Microbial Biosorption
Challenges of Phytoremediation and Microbial Biosorption
Recycling of Heavy Metals
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
References
48 Biodegradable Electrode Materials for Sustainable Supercapacitors as Future Energy Storage Devices
Introduction
Biodegradable Electrode Materials for Supercapacitor Applications
Modification of Biodegradable Electrodes
Compatible Electrolytes for Biodegradable Electrode Supercapacitors
Biodegradable Nanocomposite Supercapacitor Electrodes
Advantages and Disadvantages of Biodegradable Materials
Conclusions
Future Prospective
References
49 Biodegradable Inorganic Nanocomposites for Industrial Applications
Introduction
Aliphatic Polyester Nanoparticle Composites
Polylactic Acid (PLA) Nanocomposites
Poly(ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites
Poly(p-dioxanone) Nanocomposites
Poly(butylene Succinate) Nanocomposites
Natural Resource-Based Nanocomposites
Starch Nanocomposites
Cellulose Nanocomposites
Chitosan Nanocomposites
Protein Nanocomposites
Conclusions
Further Perspectives
Cross-References
References
50 Surfactant Biodegradation
Introduction
Impact of Surfactants on the Environment
Analysis of Surfactants in the Environment
Types of Surfactant Biodegradations
Anionic Surfactants
Cationic Surfactants
Non-ionic Surfactants
Amphoteric Surfactants
Biosurfactants
Mechanism of Surfactant Biodegradation
ω-Oxidation
β-Oxidation
Benzene Ring Oxidation
Factors Influencing Surfactant Biodegradation
Reaction Conditions
Microorganisms
Mixture Components
Assessment of the Biodegradability of Surfactants
Conclusions
Future Prospects
Cross-References
References
51 Insight into the Environmental Applications in the Biodegradation of Oil Industry Waste Materials
Introduction
Sources of Oil Industry Waste Materials
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Oil Spills
Environmental Impact of Oil Industry
Oil-Polluted Systems Treatment Using Microorganisms
Microbial Degradation of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contaminants
Mechanism of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Degradation and Pathways
Degrading Process of Alkane and Cycloalkane
Degrading Process of Aromatic Hydrocarbon
Degrading Process of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Specificity of Biodegradation
Degradation of Hydrocarbons by Enzymes
Uptake of Hydrocarbons by Biosurfactants
Utilization of Petroleum Industry Wastes as Sustainable Building Materials
Drilling Wastes
Oily Sludge
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
References
Index