Green Stormwater Infrastructure Fundamentals and Design

Green Stormwater Infrastructure Fundamentals and Design
Contents
Preface
About the Authors
Acknowledgements
About the Companion Website
1 Introduction to Urban Stormwater and Green Stormwater Infrastructure
1.1 Population and Urban Infrastructure
1.2 Impacts of Urbanization
1.3 The US Regulatory Environment
1.4 Urban Stormwater Management
1.4.1 Flood Control
1.4.2 Peak Flow Control
1.4.3 Watershed Approach to Peak Flow
1.4.4 Water-Quality Control
1.5 Climate Change and Stationarity
1.6 Green Stormwater Infrastructure
1.7 Stormwater Control Measures
1.8 Stormwater Infrastructure and Equity
References
Problems
2 Precipitation: The Stormwater Driver
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Urban Hydrologic Cycle
2.3 Precipitation
2.4 Precipitation Depths
2.5 Rainfall Patterns
2.6 Inter-event Interval
2.7 Extreme Event Precipitation
2.8 Introducing the Rainfall–Runoff Relationship
2.9 Precipitation and Water Quality
2.10 Climate Change
References
Problems
3 Water Quality
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Designated Water Uses
3.3 Water-Quality Parameters and Measures
3.4 Temperature
3.5 pH
3.6 Dissolved Oxygen
3.7 Turbidity and Particulate Matter
3.8 Biodegradable Organic Matter or “Oxygen Demand”
3.9 Nitrogen
3.9.1 Nitrate
3.9.2 Nitrite
3.9.3 Ammonium
3.9.4 Organic Nitrogen
3.9.5 Nitrogen Measurements
3.10 Phosphorus
3.11 Heavy Metals
3.12 Hydrocarbons and Other Organic Pollutants
3.12.1 Hydrocarbons
3.12.2 Pesticides and Other Organic Chemicals
3.13 Pathogens
3.14 Dissolved Solids and Conductivity
3.15 Trash
References
Problems
4 Ecosystem Services
4.1 What Are Ecosystem Services?
4.2 Ecosystem Services and Stormwater Management
4.3 Stormwater Wetlands and Ecosystem Services
4.4 Regulation Services
4.4.1 Water Treatment
4.4.2 Hydrologic Regulation
4.4.3 Climate Regulation
4.4.4 Air Quality Regulation
4.5 Habitat Services
4.6 Production Services
4.7 Information Services
4.8 Designing SCMs for Ecosystem Services
References
Problems
5 Stormwater Quality
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Event Mean Concentrations
5.3 Urban Runoff Pollutant Concentrations
5.3.1 Particulate Matter and Particle Size Distributions
5.3.2 Nitrogen and Nitrogen Speciation
5.3.3 Phosphorus and Phosphorus Speciation
5.3.4 Heavy Metals Concentrations and Speciation
5.3.5 PAH and PCBs
5.4 Urban Stormwater Pollutant Sources
5.5 Pollutant Buildup and Wash Off
5.5.1 Pollutographs
5.5.2 First Flush
5.6 Annual Pollutant Loads
5.7 Sampling and Measurements
5.8 A Note about Stormwater Quality
References
Problems
6 Watershed Hydrology
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Precipitation
6.2.1 Design Storms
6.2.2 Continuous Simulation
6.3 Watershed Hydrology
6.3.1 Drainage Area Delineation
6.3.2 Interception and Depression Storage
6.3.3 The Simple Method
6.3.4 NRCS Curve Number Method
6.3.5 NRCS “Time of Concentration”
6.3.6 NRCS Unit Hydrograph
6.3.7 Creating the Storm Hydrograph
6.4 Peak Flow Methods
6.4.1 The Rational Method
6.4.2 The NRCS Unit Hydrograph Method
6.5 Watershed and SCM Hydraulics
6.5.1 Open Channel Flow
6.5.2 Orifices
6.5.3 Weirs
References
Problems
7 SCM Hydrologic Unit Processes
7.1 Introduction
7.2 SCM Soil Physics and Infiltration
7.2.1 Soil Texture
7.2.2 Soil–Water Interactions
7.2.3 Soil Hydraulic Properties
7.2.4 Green and Ampt Model
7.2.5 Karst Areas
7.3 Evapotranspiration
7.4 Soil Moisture Accounting
7.5 Storage Indication Routing
7.6 Computer-Based Stormwater Models
References
Problems
8 Unit Processes for Stormwater Quality Mitigation
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Reactions, Reactors, and Reactor Engineering
8.3 Removal of Particulate Matter
8.3.1 Sedimentation
8.3.2 Filtration
8.4 Removal of Dissolved Pollutants: Adsorption
8.4.1 Adsorption Equilibrium Models
8.4.2 Batch Adsorption
8.4.3 Adsorption Column Dynamics
8.4.4 Adsorption of Hydrophobic Organic Compounds
8.4.5 Adsorption of Heavy Metals
8.4.6 Adsorption of Phosphorus
8.4.7 Adsorption of Ammonium
8.5 Leaching Processes
8.6 Microbiological Processes
8.6.1 Microbial/Pathogen Survival
8.6.2 Organic Matter Degradation
8.6.3 Nitrification
8.6.4 Denitrification
8.7 Phytobiological Processes
8.8 Heat Transfer
References
Problems
9 Stormwater Performance Measures and Metrics
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Reference Conditions and Defining Thresholds
9.3 Volume Control
9.3.1 Runoff Depth
9.3.2 Curve Number Reduction
9.4 Peak Flow, Flow, and Geomorphology
9.5 Pollutant Percent Removal
9.6 Chesapeake Bay Retrofit Curves
9.7 Target Effluent Concentrations
9.8 Annual Mass Load
9.9 Probability and Exceedance
9.10 Pollutant Durations
References
Problems
10 Preventing Runoff and Stormwater Pollution
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Site Design and Low Impact Development
10.3 Compacted Urban Surfaces
10.3.1 Avoiding Compaction and Promoting Infiltration
10.3.2 Soil Restoration
10.3.3 De-paving
10.3.4 Removing Abandoned Housing
10.4 Street Trees
10.5 Disconnecting Impervious Surfaces
10.5.1 Defining Disconnected Impervious Surface
10.5.2 Calculating the Benefit of Disconnecting Imperviousness
10.5.3 Design
10.5.4 Water-Quality Benefits
10.5.5 Performance Results
10.6 Pollution Prevention
10.6.1 Street Sweeping
10.6.2 Product Prohibition
10.7 Education
References
Problems
11 Green Infrastructure Stormwater Control
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Fundamentals of Stormwater Control Measures
11.3 Designing to Climate and the Watershed
11.4 Types of Stormwater Control Measures
11.5 Nonvegetated Stormwater Control Measures
11.5.1 Infiltration Basins and Rock Beds
11.5.2 Permeable Pavements
11.5.3 Cisterns and Rain Barrels
11.5.4 Sand Filters
11.6 Vegetated Stormwater Control Measures
11.6.1 Vegetation Challenges
11.6.2 Green Roofs
11.6.3 Bioretention
11.6.4 Vegetated Swales and Filter Strips
11.6.5 Stormwater Wetlands
11.7 Selecting the SCM Site
11.8 Stormwater Treatment Media
11.8.1 Rock, Gravel, and Coarse Sand
11.8.2 Silts and Clays
11.8.3 Organic Media
11.9 Volumetric Storage
11.10 Drains and Underdrains
11.11 “Irreducible Concentrations”
References
Problems
12 Inlets, Bypasses, Pretreatment, and Proprietary Devices
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Inlets
12.3 Stormwater Bypass
12.4 Catch Basin and Inlet Filters
12.5 Pretreatment
12.6 Forebays
12.6.1 Forebay Design
12.6.2 Forebay Maintenance
12.7 Proprietary Devices
12.8 Accumulated Trash and Sediment
References
Problems
13 Green Roofs
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Climate and Green Roofs
13.3 Types of Roofs
13.3.1 Green Roofs
13.3.2 Blue Roofs
13.4 Extensive Green Roof Components
13.5 Hydrologic Design Strategies
13.5.1 Rainfall Capture
13.5.2 Evapotranspiration
13.6 Water Quality Design
13.6.1 Phosphorus
13.6.2 Nitrogen
13.6.3 Metals
13.7 Inspection and Maintenance
13.8 Other Green Roof Benefits
References
Problems
14 Rainwater Harvesting
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Potential as a Water Resource
14.3 Harvested Roof Water Quality
14.4 Rain Barrels
14.5 Rainwater Harvesting Regulations
14.5.1 Non-stormwater Regulations
14.5.2 Stormwater Regulations
14.6 Designing Rainwater Harvesting Systems
14.6.1 General Characteristics and Purpose
14.6.2 Rainwater Storage Sizing Techniques
14.6.3 Design
14.7 Designing for Enhanced Stormwater Performance
14.7.1 Passive Release Mechanism
14.7.2 Active Release Mechanism
14.7.3 Alternative Approaches for Irrigation-based Systems
14.7.4 Designing an Infiltration or Filtration Area
14.8 Treatment for High-quality Use
14.9 Inspection and Maintenance
References
Problems
15 Permeable Pavement
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Types of Permeable Pavements
15.3 Permeable Pavement Installation
15.4 Designing for Infiltration and Percolation
15.4.1 Surface Infiltration
15.4.2 Run-on Ratio
15.4.3 Depth/Volume of Storage Layer
15.4.4 Underdrain Need
15.4.5 Underdrain Configuration
15.4.6 In Situ Soils
15.5 Permeable Pavement Hydrologic Design Strategies
15.6 Permeable Pavement Hydrology
15.6.1 Hydrographs
15.6.2 Curve Numbers and Storage
15.6.3 Evaporation
15.7 Water Quality Design
15.7.1 Particulate Matter
15.7.2 Metals
15.7.3 Nutrients
15.7.4 Hydrocarbons
15.7.5 pH
15.7.6 Thermal Pollution (Temperature)
15.7.7 Pollutant Loads
15.7.8 Long-term Pollutant Fate
15.8 Maintenance
15.9 Design Summary
15.10 Permeable Pavement Cost Factors
15.11 Permeable Friction Course
References
Problems
16 Infiltration Trenches and Infiltration Basins
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Types of Basins
16.3 Mechanisms of Treatment
16.4 Infiltration
16.5 Surface Infiltration Basins
16.6 Infiltration Trench and Subsurface Infiltration Basin Design
16.7 Infiltration Trench and Basin Performance
16.8 Inspection and Maintenance
References
Problems
17 Sand Filters
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Basic Sand Filter Operation
17.3 Sand Filter Options and Configurations
17.4 Sand Filter Design
17.5 Water Quality Performance
17.5.1 Particulate Matter Removal
17.5.2 Dissolved Pollutant Removal
17.6 Sand Filter Headloss
17.7 Solids Accumulation and Clogging
17.8 Sorptive and Reactive Media
17.9 Geotextile Filters
17.10 Inspection and Maintenance
References
Problems
18 Bioretention
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Bioretention Classifications
18.3 Bioretention Components
18.4 Siting and Configuration
18.5 Bioretention Flow Entrances, Inlets, and Forebays
18.6 Storage Bowl
18.7 Bioretention Design: Static Storage and Hydrologic Performance
18.8 Dynamic Storage
18.9 The Media
18.9.1 Rain Gardens
18.9.2 Standard Media
18.9.3 Surface Mulch Layer
18.10 Evapotranspiration
18.11 The Media and Particulate Matter Removal
18.12 The Media and Heavy Metals Removal
18.13 The Media and Organic Pollutants Removal
18.14 The Media and Phosphorus Removal
18.14.1 Phosphorus Removal in Bioretention
18.14.2 Quantifying Phosphorus Removal
18.14.3 Media Enhancements for Phosphorus Removal
18.15 The Media and Nitrogen Removal
18.15.1 Nitrogen Processing in Standard Bioretention Systems
18.15.2 Enhanced Nitrogen Removal
18.15.3 Biological Nitrogen Transformations
18.16 The Media and Bacteria Removal
18.17 Vegetation
18.18 The Underdrain and Subsurface Storage
18.19 Internal Water Storage and Nitrogen Removal
18.20 Bioretention Pollutant Load Reductions
18.21 Bioretention Exfiltration and Groundwater
18.22 Inspection and Maintenance
References
Problems
19 Swales, Filter Strips, and Level Spreaders
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Characteristics
19.2.1 Swales
19.2.2 Filter Strips and Level Spreaders
19.3 Swale Design
19.3.1 Configurations
19.3.2 Hydraulic Design
19.4 Filter Strip Design
19.4.1 Configurations
19.4.2 Flow Conveyance
19.5 Filter Strips Conveying to Swales
19.6 Water Quality Considerations
19.6.1 Designing for Pollutant Capture: Length of Swale
19.6.2 Designing for Particulate Matter Removal
19.6.3 Designing for Particulate Matter Removal with Particle-size Distribution Available
19.6.4 Designing for Metals Removal
19.6.5 Filtration through Swales and Filter Strips
19.6.6 Check Dams
19.7 Swale Performance
19.7.1 Hydrologic Considerations
19.7.2 Water Quality Considerations
19.8 Construction, Inspection, and Maintenance
19.9 Summary
References
Problems
20 Stormwater Wetlands
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Sizing Stormwater Wetlands
20.3 Stormwater Wetland Features and Design
20.3.1 Zone I—Deep Pools
20.3.2 Zone II—Deep to Shallow Water Transition Zone (Transition Zone)
20.3.3 Zone III—Shallow Water Zone
20.3.4 Zone IV—Temporary Inundation Zone
20.3.5 Zone V—Upper Bank
20.4 Wetland Vegetation
20.5 Wetland Soils and Vegetation Growth Media
20.6 Wetland Outlet Configuration
20.7 Wetland Construction
20.8 Wetland Variations
20.8.1 Wetland Design for Cold Water Species (Salmonids)
20.8.2 Off-line Stormwater Wetlands
20.8.3 Wetlands with High Flow Bypass
20.9 Water Quality Improvements in Stormwater Wetlands
20.10 Other Stormwater Wetland Designs
20.10.1 Submerged Gravel Wetlands
20.10.2 Ponds Transitioning to Wetlands
20.10.3 Floating Wetlands
20.11 Inspection and Maintenance
References
Problems
21 Putting It All Together
21.1 Introduction
21.2 SCM Hydrologic Performance Summary
21.3 SCM Water Quality Performance Summary
21.3.1 Green Roofs and Water Harvesting
21.3.2 Permeable Pavements
21.3.3 Infiltration Basins
21.3.4 Sand Filters
21.3.5 Bioretention
21.3.6 Vegetated Swales
21.3.7 Stormwater Wetlands
21.4 Treatment Trains
21.5 SCM Treatment Train Examples
21.5.1 Treatment Trains within Individual SCMs
21.5.2 Incorporating Treatment Trains in Traditional SCMs
21.5.3 SCMs in Series
21.6 Quantifying Performance in SCM Treatment Trains
21.7 Real Time Controls
21.8 Designing for Climate Change
21.9 Greener Infrastructure: What Does the Future Hold?
References
Problems
Appendix A
Index
EULA