This book aims to serve the critical interests of the global community by supplying the most current knowledge and understanding of Covid-19 epidemiology, treatment, and prognoses. There was much uncertain and contradictory information published in the first year of the novel coronavirus. The dynamics of COVID-19 have now been realized, including the type of antibodies produced in infected patients and their limited lasting endurance. This book will set the record straight on the concept of “herd immunity” and explore the current vaccine trials taking place in different countries. This comprehensive book will illuminate recent advances regarding COVID-19 and offer a possible roadmap on how to move forward.
Frontiers of COVID-19: A Pathophysiology and Epidemiology Roadmap of Novel Coronavirus Disease will be a vital and forward-looking guide for infectious disease clinicians, scientists and researchers, and students at the graduate level.
Author(s): Sasan Adibi, Paul Griffin, Melvin Sanicas, Maryam Rashidi Francesco Lanfranchi
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2022
Language: English
Pages: 666
City: Cham
Introduction
Part I: History, Epidemiologic Background and Pathogenesis of Coronavirus
Main Topics
History of Coronaviruses
Epidemiology and Demographics of COVID-19
Pathogenesis of COVID-19
Chapters Included
Chapter 1: Surfaces as a Source for SARS-CoV-2 Transmission
Chapter 2: Humoral Immune Response in SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Its Therapeutic Relevance
Chapter 3: SARS-CoV-2 Invasion and Pathogenesis of COVID-19: A Perspective of Viral Receptors, Bradykinin and Purinergic System
Chapter 4: Genetics and Biological Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2
Chapter 5: COVID-19 Impact on Host at Pathophysiological and Cellular Level
Chapter 6: Identification of the COVID-19 Droplet Deposition Path and Its Effects on the Human Respiratory Tract Before and After the Disease: A Scoping Novel Respiratory Mask Design
Chapter 7: SARS-CoV-2 Variants: Impact of Spike Mutations on Vaccine and Therapeutic Strategies
Chapter 8: Global Biologic Characteristics of Variants of Concern and Variants of Interest of SARS-CoV-2
Chapter 9: Emergence of COVID-19 Variants and Its Global Impact
Part II: Clinical Observations
Main Topics
Respiratory Symptoms
Cardiovascular Complications
Neurological Complications
Gastrointestinal Symptoms
Psychological and Sociological Issues
Chapters Included
Chapter 10: Psychological Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic
Chapter 11: Spatial Epidemiology of COVID-19: Disease Risk, Prognosis, and Complications
Chapter 12: Eye Disorders and Neuro-ophthalmic Manifestations
Chapter 13: Evaluation and Management of Dysphagia During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Chapter 14: Gastrointestinal Manifestations of COVID-19 and Inflammatory Bowel Disease in the COVID-19 Era: Clinical Overview and Updated Guidelines
Chapter 15: Post COVID-19 Conditions: The New Challenge to Mankind
Chapter 16: Association of Alpha 1 Antitrypsin Deficiency with COVID-19 Mortality Rate
Chapter 17: Social Cognition Approaches to Understanding and Changing COVID-19 Preventive Behaviors
Chapter 18: Neurological Complications of COVID-19
Chapter 19: The Impact of Covid-19 on Surgical Disease
Part III: Interventions and Treatments
Main Topics
Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Current Treatments
Chapters Included
Chapter 20: Pre-hospital Management of COVID-19: Looking for a Future Perspective
Chapter 21: Biotechnological Strategies in the Intervention and Treatment of COVID-19
Chapter 22: Vitamin D: A Potential Prophylactic and Therapeutic Agent Against COVID-19
Part IV: Current Trends and Future Directions
Main Topics
Ongoing Clinical Trials for Treatment and Vaccination
Future Directions for COVID-19 Management in Clinical Practice and Research
Post-COVID-19 or Long COVID
Chapters Included
Chapter 23: Rational Repurposing of Drugs, Clinical Trial Candidates, and Natural Products for SARS-Cov-2 Therapy
Chapter 24: In Silico Drug Repositioning for COVID-19: Progress and Challenges
Chapter 25: Computationally Repurposed Natural Products Targeting SARS-CoV-2
Chapter 26: Different Platforms, Immune Response Modulators, and Challenges in SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination
Chapter 27: SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine Against Virus: Mission (Im)possible
Chapter 28: COVID-19 Vaccines Authorized by Stringent Regulatory Authorities and Vaccine
Chapter 29: The Global Evolution of a Pandemic on Clinical Practice
Chapter 30: Anticipated Long-Term Neurobehavioral Outcomes Following COVID-19
Chapter 31: The Road Ahead
References
Contents
Part I: History, Epidemiologic Background and Pathogenesis of Coronavirus
Chapter 1: Surfaces as a Source for SARS-CoV-2 Transmission
Introduction
Persistence of Infectious SARS-CoV-2 on Surfaces
Detection of Viral RNA on Surfaces
Surrounding of Confirmed COVID-19 Patients in Health-Care Settings
Surrounding of COVID-19 Patients in Non-Health-Care Settings
Public Surfaces
Detection of Infectious SARS-CoV-2 on Surfaces
Probability of Surfaces to Be the Source for SARS-CoV-2 Transmission
References
Chapter 2: Humoral Immune Response in SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Its Therapeutic Relevance
Introduction
Pathogens and Antibodies Evolve Together
Antibody Kinetics After SARS-CoV-2 Infection
The Role of Antibodies in COVID-19
Antibody Titers
Antibodies Functionality
Antibodies and Reinfection
Antibody Production Modulated by Cytokines
Maternal Antibodies
Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: SARS-CoV-2 Invasion and Pathogenesis of COVID-19: A Perspective of Viral Receptors, Bradykinin, and Purinergic System
Introduction
Human Cell Invasion by SARS-CoV-2
ACE-2 and SARS-CoV-2, The Supposed Main Mechanism
CD147 and CD209, Additional Mechanisms of Infection
Bradykinin and Kinin–Kallikrein System
Functional Relation Between Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme-2 (ACE2) and Kallikrein–Kinin System: Implications in COVID-19
Bradykinin Storm
Purinergic System as Target in the Modulation of Immune System Triggered by SARS-CoV-2
Purinergic Signalling
Involvement of Purinergic Signalling on the Modulation of Inflammatory Process Generated by SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Pharmacological Approaches
References
Chapter 4: Genetics and Biological Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2
Introduction
SARS-CoV-2 Genome and Replication
Genomic Structure
Viral Replication
Key Structural Proteins
Spike (S)
Envelope (E)
Membrane (M)
Nucleocapsid (N)
Genetic Diversity of SARS-CoV-2
SARS-CoV-2 Classification
Evidence of Genetic Recombination
Genetic Mutations of SARS-CoV-2
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 5: COVID-19 Impact on Host at Pathophysiological and Cellular Level
Introduction
Cardiovascular Diseases
Hypertension
Diabetes
Obesity
Obesity-Related Complications and COVID-19: Immune Dysfunction and Adipose Inflammation
Thrombosis in Obese COVID-19 Patients
COVID-19 and the Obesity Paradox
Neurological Modalities
Cancer
Immunocompromised Status
Oral and Maxillofacial Manifestations
Oral Mucosal Lesions Associated with COVID-19
Effect of Poor Oral Hygiene and Periodontal Diseases on COVID-19
Effect of Nasal Irrigation and Antimicrobial Oral Rinses on COVID-19 Disease Outcome
COVID-19–Associated Mucormycosis
Kidney Injury
Molecular Pathways Involved in the Development of COVID-19 Pathology
NFκB Signaling
The p38 MAPK Signaling
JNK Pathway
IRF Involved Signaling
JAK-STAT Pathway
Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Identification of the COVID-19 Droplet Deposition Path and Its Effects on the Human Respiratory Tract Before and After the Disease: A Scoping Novel Respiratory Mask Design
Introduction
Methods
Computational Model
Governing Equations
Numerical Solution and Method Verification
Results
The Flow Enters from the Nose with the Closed Mouth—Group A
Simulated Airflow and Droplet Transport and Deposition
Simulated Solid Domain Deformation
The Flow Enters from the Mouth with Closed Nose—Group B
Simulated Airflow with Droplet Transport and Deposition
Simulated Solid Domain Deformation
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: SARS-CoV-2 Variants: Impact of Spike Mutations on Vaccine and Therapeutic Strategies
Introduction
Variants of Concern (VOC)
The B.1.1.7 Lineage (Alpha Variant)
Origin
Genetic Alterations, Impact on Protein Structure and Antigenicity
Effect on Convalescent and Vaccine Sera
Effect on Vaccine Efficacy
Effect on Antibody Therapy
The B.1.351 Lineage (Beta Variant)
Origin
Genetic Alterations and Impact on Protein Structure and Antigenicity
Effect on Convalescent and Vaccine Sera
Effect on Vaccine Efficacy
Effect on Antibody Therapy
P.1 Variant (Gamma Variant)
Origin
Genetic Alterations and Impact on Protein Structure and Antigenicity
Effect on Convalescent and Vaccine Sera
Effect on Vaccine Efficacy
Effect on Antibody Therapy
The B.1.617.2 (Delta Variant)
Origin
Genetic Alterations and Impact on Protein Structure and Antigenicity
Effect on Convalescent and Vaccine Sera
Effect on Vaccine Efficacy
Effect on Antibody Therapy
Variants of Interest (VOI)
Epsilon (B.1.427 and B.1.429) Variants
Zeta (P.2) Variant
Eta (B.1.525) and Iota (B.1.526) Variants
Theta (P.3) Variant
Kappa (B.1.617.1)
Lambda (C.37) Variant
Uganda Variant (A.23.1)
Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Global Biologic Characteristics of Variants of Concern and Variants of Interest of SARS-CoV-2
Background
SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concerns and Their Characteristics
SARS-CoV-2 Alpha Variant
SARS-CoV-2 Beta Variant
SARS-CoV-2 Gamma Variant
SARS-CoV-2 Delta Variant
SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Interest (VOI) and Their Characteristics
Long-Term Manifestations of COVID-19
Conclusions
References
Chapter 9: Emergence of COVID-19 Variants and Its Global Impact
Introduction
Reasons for Emergence of SARS CoV-2 Variants
Nomenclature of the SARS CoV-2 Variants
Major COVID-19 Variants
Variants of Concern
B.1.1.7 or the Alpha Variant
B.1.351 or the Beta Variant
P.1 or the Gamma Variant
B.1.617.2 or the Delta Variant
Variants of Interest
Other Notable Variants
Impact of Viral Variants
Impact on Disease Spread, Virulence, and Therapeutics
Impact on Diagnostic Tests
Strategies to Prevent Emergence of Newer Variants
Conclusion
References
Part II: Clinical Observations
Chapter 10: Psychological Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic
Introduction
Psychological and Psychiatric Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic
General Population-Based Estimates of COVID-19-Related Psychiatric Symptoms and Psychological Distress
Distress and Psychiatric Symptoms Among Specific Sociodemographic Groups
Children and Adolescents
Students and Young Adults
Frontline Healthcare Workers
Other Essential Workers
Parents
Pregnant Individuals
Members of Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups
Suicidality
Heterogeneity and Temporal Variability of Adverse Psychiatric Effects Associated with the COVID-19 Pandemic
Risk and Protective Factors for Psychological Distress and Psychiatric Illness During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Potential Risk Factors for Increased Distress and Psychopathology in the COVID-19 Pandemic
Younger Age
Female Sex/Gender
Pre-existing Psychiatric Conditions
Socioeconomic Disadvantage
Racism
Possible Protective Factors Against Psychopathology During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Increased Age
Healthcare Knowledge and Adoption of Precautionary Measures
Psychological Traits and Behaviors
Psychiatric Manifestations of COVID-19 and Its Aftermath
Neuropsychiatric Manifestations of COVID-19 and Putative Pathophysiologic Mechanisms
“Long COVID-19,” Its Neuropsychiatric Symptoms, and Potential Mechanisms
Psychiatric Sequelae of COVID-19
Psychological and Behavior Adaptation Strategies
Conclusion
Further Readings
Chapter 11: Spatial Epidemiology of COVID-19 Pandemic: Disease Risk, Prognosis, and Complications
Introduction
Global Variation in COVID-19 Case Incidence and Mortality: Impact of Vaccination and New Variants of Concern
Spatial Variation of Risk Factors for SARS-CoV-2 Transmission and Mortality
Pre-existing Comorbidities and the Risk of COVID-19 Mortality
Spatial Variation of Genetic Predictors of SARS-CoV-2
Meteorological and Environmental Predictors of COVID-19 Transmission and Mortality
Mental Health and Psychological Stress Consequences of COVID-19 Pandemic
Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Eye Disorders and Neuro-ophthalmic Manifestations of COVID-19
Introduction
Pathophysiological Mechanisms
Eye Disorders
Conjunctivitis and Keratitis
Retinal Disorders and Choroiditis
Neuro-ophthalmic Manifestations
Optic Neuritis
Ocular Motor Nerves Palsy
Miller Fisher Syndrome
Looking to the Future
References
Chapter 13: Evaluation and Management of Dysphagia During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Introduction
Mode of Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 Infection
The Characteristics of Dysphagia in Patients After Recovery from COVID-19
Videofluoroscopic Swallowing Study Findings After Severe COVID-19
Clinic Setup and Precautions Necessary When Assessing Patients with Dysphagia During the COVID-19 Pandemic
The Selection of Patients with Dysphagia and the Selection of Their Assessment During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Management of Dysphagia in Head and Neck Cancer Patients During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Practical Strategy
Implementation of Rehabilitation of Swallowing During the COVID-19 Pandemic: From the Acute Hospital to the Old Age Home
Telemedicine and the Evaluation and Management of Patients with Dysphagia
Management of Dysphagia in the COVID-19 Era: A Multidisciplinary Approach
Conclusions
References
Chapter 14: Gastrointestinal Manifestations of COVID-19 and Inflammatory Bowel Disease in the COVID-19 Era: Clinical Overview and Updated Guidelines
Gastrointestinal Manifestations
Clinical Background and Pathogenesis of Gastrointestinal Manifestations in COVID-19
Gastrointestinal and Hepatic Presentations of COVID-19
Diagnosis and Treatment of GIT and Hepatic Manifestations of COVID-19
Protection of the Health Care Workers
Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) in the COVID-19 Era
Clinical Background of the Condition
Effect of COVID-19 on IBD
Effect of IBD on COVID-19
Guidelines for IBD Treatment and Follow-Up, Dilemmas, and Differences
Guidelines for Vaccination
Future Research Points
Conclusions
References
Chapter 15: Post COVID-19 Conditions: The New Challenge to Mankind
The Post COVID-19 Syndrome
Cardiovascular Involvement in COVID-19
Cardiovascular Complications in COVID-19
Life After COVID-19: Results of the First National Campaign in Bulgaria
Imaging Methods of Choice in COVID-Related Cardiovascular Complications
Acute Coronary Syndrome as Part of the Post COVID-19 Conditions
Pulmonary Embolism in COVID-19 Patients
Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Association of Alpha 1 Antitrypsin Deficiency with COVID-19 Mortality: Basis for Clinical Trials
Introduction
Host Genetics of COVID-19
Targeting TMPRSS2 to Treat COVID-19
Correlation of COVID-19 Case Fatality Rate with A1AT Deficiency
Mechanism of the Protective Effect of A1AT
Clinical Trials of A1AT in COVID-19
Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Social Cognition Approaches to Understanding and Changing COVID-19 Preventive Behaviors
Introduction
Social Cognition Theories Used to Explain and Change Behavior
Social Cognition Determinants of COVID-19 Preventive Behaviors
An Application of Theory- and Evidence-Based Strategies to Promote a COVID-19 Preventive Behavior
Key Challenges and Future Directions
Conclusion
References
Chapter 18: Neurological Complications of COVID-19
Introduction
Neurological Manifestations and Neuropathophysiology of Respiratory Viruses
Classification of COVID-19 Neurological Complications
Anosmia and Ageusia
Encephalopathies
CNS Inflammatory Syndromes
Encephalitis
Encephalomyelitis and Myelitis
PNS and Neuromuscular Alterations
Guillain-Barré Syndrome Spectrum
Other Neuropathies and Neuromuscular Disorders
Cerebrovascular Disorders
Ischemic Stroke
Intracranial Hemorrhage
Cerebral Venous Sinus Thrombosis
Cerebral Vasculopathy
Neuro-Covid Imaging
Moving Forward
References
Chapter 19: The Impact of COVID-19 on Surgical Disease
COVID-19-Induced Hypercoagulability
COVID-19-Induced Gastrointestinal Pathology
Tracheostomy in the COVID-19 Era
Impact on Elective and Non-Urgent Surgery
Impact on Trauma/Acute Care Surgery
Delays in Care Due to COVID-19
Perioperative Effects of COVID-19
Future Considerations
References
Part III: Interventions and Treatments
Chapter 20: Pre-hospital Management of COVID-19: Looking for a Future Perspective
Introduction
SARS-CoV-2 Diagnosis
Home Setting
Multidimensional Assessment
Early Clinical Symptoms
Laboratory Biomarkers
Imaging and Instrumental Tools
Pharmacological Interventions
Monoclonal Antibodies
Antiviral Agents
Corticosteroids
Other Drugs
Respiratory Support
Oxygen Therapy
Prone Positioning and Pulmonary Rehabilitation
Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 21: Biotechnological Strategies in the Intervention and Treatment of COVID-19
Introduction
Repurposing of Known Drugs Against COVID-19
First COVID-19 Vaccines: Efficacy and Clinical Symptoms After Application
Vaccines from Modified Viral mRNA
Vaccines Developed from a Viral Vector
Inactivated Virus Vaccines
Anaphylactic Reactions and Thrombotic Events
Variants
Neutralizing Monoclonal Antibodies for COVID-19 Treatment and Prophylaxis
Natural Products in the Treatment Against COVID-19
Bioactive Substances and Vitamins in the Treatment of COVID-19
Propolis: A New Alternative Against COVID-19—Cases of Reports
The Use of Propolis: Clinical Cases
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 22: Vitamin D: A Potential Prophylactic and Therapeutic Agent against COVID-19
Introduction
SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19
Vitamin D, Its Various Forms, and Functions
The Role of Vitamin D in Respiratory Infections and COVID-19: A Case for Its Prophylactic Effect
Can Vitamin D Deficiency Increase the Susceptibility to COVID-19?
Immunophenotype of COVID-19 and Vitamin D Deficiency
Management of Vitamin D Deficiency for a Therapeutic Effect
Regulation of Thrombotic Complications by Vitamin D—A Therapeutic Model?
Vitamin D and the Inflammatory Response
The Positive Role of Vitamin D in COVID-19 Complications
Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
Part IV: Current Trends and Future Directions
Chapter 23: Rational Repurposing of Drugs, Clinical Trial Candidates, and Natural Products for SARS-CoV-2 Therapy
The COVID-19 Pandemic and the Urgent Need for Effective Drug Treatments
Rationale for, and Examples of, Successful Drug Repurposing
Computational Repurposing of Drugs
SARS-CoV-2 Molecular Targets Used for Repurposing
Spike
NSP3 (Papain-Like Protease) and NSP5 (3C-like Protease)
NSP7, NSP8 and NSP12 (RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase, RdRp)
NSP13 Helicase
NSP14 (3′ to 5′ Endonuclease, N7-Methyltransferase)
NSP15 (endoRNAse)
NSP16 (2′-O-Ribose-Methyltransferase)
Computational Methods for Virtual Screening
Protein Structure Preparation and Grid Preparation
Drug and Clinical Trials Databases for Screening
Molecular Docking
Molecular Dynamics Simulation and Binding Free Energy Estimation
Examples of Virtual Screening—Results, Validation, Leads
Main Protease (Mpro)
RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase (RdRp)
Helicase
Summary and Perspective
References
Chapter 24: In Silico Drug Repositioning for COVID-19: Progress and Challenges
Introduction
Drug Repurposing
In Silico Drug Repurposing Methods
Knowledge Mining and Integration Strategies
Genetic Analysis Methods
Connectivity Map Strategy
Network Analysis Methods
Computer-Aided Drug Design
In Silico Drug Repurposing for COVID-19
Chloroquine
Hydroxychloroquine
Lopinavir–Ritonavir
Remdesivir
Favipiravir
Oseltamivir
Ribavirin
Ivermectin
Corticosteroid
Tocilizumab
Opportunities and Challenges
Conclusion
References
Chapter 25: Computationally Repurposed Natural Products Targeting SARS-CoV-2 Attachment and Entry Mechanisms
Introduction
Structural Features of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein
Inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 Receptor Binding Domain (RBD) for Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2)
Alkaloids
Sterols
Peptides
Polyphenols
Curcuminoid
Stilbenols and Stilbenoid
Flavonoids
Anthraquinone
Tannin
Terpenoids
Organic Sulfides and Other Organosulfur Compounds
Phenolic Acids
Miscellaneous Natural Products
Inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 Receptor Binding Domain for GRP78
Alkaloids
Polyphenols
Peptides
Terpenoids
Inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 Receptor Binding Domain for NRP-1 Binding Region
Inhibitors of Host Cell TMPRSS2
Alkaloids
Peptides
Polyphenols
Flavonol and Flavone
Chalcone
Hydrolysable Tannin
Proanthocyanidins
Anthraquinone
Xanthone
Phenolic Acids
Terpenoids
Prospects
References
Chapter 26: Different Platforms, Immune Response Modulators and Challenges in SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination
What Influences a Vaccine’s Response?
SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines: Development Scenario, Platforms Used, and Their Particularities
Vaccine Platforms
Whole-Pathogen Vaccine
Adenovirus-Vectored Vaccine
Protein Subunit Vaccine
Nucleic Acid Vaccine
Immune Response Modulators
Immunization Routes
Adjuvants and Delivery Systems
The Use of Mucosa Vaccines for SARS-CoV-2
Potentially Modified Response to Vaccination
Disease-Modifying Therapies and Immunocompromised Patients
Childhood
Pregnancy
SARS-CoV-2 Variants
Booster Doses and Heterologous Prime-Booster Schemes
Conclusion
References
Chapter 27: SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine Against Virus: Mission Accomplished!?
A Virus with Potential
Mutations in the Viral Spike Protein and Beyond
The Pressure is on
References
Chapter 28: COVID-19 Vaccines Authorized by Stringent Regulatory Authorities and Vaccine Candidates Expecting Approval in 2021
Introduction
Vaccine Development and Production Timeline
How Were COVID-19 Vaccines Developed in Less Than a Year
Vaccine Trials Were Done in Parallel Instead of Sequential
Rolling Submission of Regulatory Dossier
Scientific Data from Other Coronaviruses
Global Collaboration and Data Sharing
Funding for COVID-19 Vaccine Research
Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI)
Advancements in Science and Technology
COVID-19 Community Transmission in Many Countries
Different Types of Vaccines for COVID-19
CoronaVac (SinoVac Biotech)
BBIBP-CorV (Sinopharm)
Covaxin (Bharat Biotech)
NVX-CoV2373 (Novavax)
ChAdOx1/AZD1222 (Oxford University/Astra-Zeneca)
Sputnik V (Gamaleya Institute)
Ad26.COV2.S (Johnson & Johnson)
Comirnaty mRNA Vaccine (Pfizer, BioNTech, Fosun)
SpikeVax (mRNA-1273) (Moderna, National Institutes of Health)
Zy-CoV-D COVID-19 DNA vaccine (Zydus Cadila)
Current Knowledge Gaps
References
Chapter 29: The Global Evolution of Clinical Practice During a Pandemic
Regional Variations in the Evolution of COVID-19
Potential Advanced-Stage Pathology of Disease Processes
Managing Surgical Backlog
Ambulatory Care and the Outpatient Setting
Employee Screening Protocols
Personal Protective Equipment
Bed Allocation
Reliance Upon Communication and Social Media for Clinical Updates
The Influx of Case Reports and Preliminary Data in Journals
Novel Collaborations for Large-Scale Data
Conclusion
References
Chapter 30: Anticipated Long-Term Neurobehavioral Outcomes Following COVID-19
Physiological Mechanisms of Long-Term Cognitive Change
Hypoxia and Hypoxemia
Stroke
Post-Intensive Care Syndrome
Chronic Metabolic Dysfunction
Neurodegenerative Risk
Psychiatric Conditions That Impact Cognition
Depression
Anxiety
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Additional Clinical Considerations
The Neuropsychological Evaluation
Patient, Caregiver, and Community Factors
Chapter Summary
References
Chapter 31: The Road Ahead (Editors)
The Known Knowns
Prevention
Risk Stratification
Diagnosis
Treatments
Vaccines
The Known Unknowns
New Drugs
Variants
Long COVID
Main Topics of Concern
The Unknown Knowns
The Unknown Unknowns
References
Index
