From Herbs to Healing: Pharmacognosy - Phytochemistry - Phytotherapy - Biotechnology

CONTENTS
FOREWORD
ABBREVIATIONS
Chapter I DEVELOPMENTS IN KNOWLEDGE ON ACTIVE COMPOUNDS OF NATURAL ORIGIN. PHARMACOGNOSY IN THE 21ST CENTURY
Chapter II QUALITY REQUIREMENTS FOR HERBAL DRUGS; ANALYTICAL METHODS
II.1 CONCEPT OF HERBAL DRUGS; NOMENCLATURE
II.2 CULTIVATION, COLLECTION AND PROCESSING OF MEDICINAL PLANTS
II.2.1 COLLECTION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS GROWING IN THE WILD
II.2.2 CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS
II.2.2.1 Introduction of species into cultivation and the aims of breeding
II.2.2.2 Basic criteria for cultivation
II.2.3 PROCESSING OF MEDICINAL PLANTS
II.2.3.1 General criteria
II.2.3.2 Preliminary processing – cleansing, comminution, drying
II.2.3.3 Storage, packaging
II.2.3.4 Quality control
II.3 ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES USED IN PHARMACOGNOSY
II.3.1 General criteria to be met by herbal drugs
II.3.2 Preparation stages for the analysis of herbal drugs
II.3.3 Screening of plants and herbal drugs
II.3.4 Identification of herbal drugs via the chromatographic analysis of their active components
II.3.4.1 CONVENTIONAL LAYER AND COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY
II.3.4.2 FLASH CHROMATOGRAPHY
II.3.5 Modern methods for analysis and structural elucidation
II.3.5.1 HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY
II.3.5.2 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
II.3.5.2.1 Use of gas chromatography to analyse naturally occurring compounds
II.3.5.2.2 Use of gas chromatography for the analysis of non-volatile compounds
II.3.5.3 MASS SPECTROMETRY
II.3.5.4 NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY
References (Chapter II)
Chapter III BIOSYNTHESIS OF PLANT SUBSTANCES; BIOGENETIC RELATIONSHIPS
BIOGENETIC SYSTEM OF BIOACTIVE PLANT SUBSTANCES
III.1 CHEMISTRY AND BIOSYNTHESIS OF SACCHARIDES
III.1.1 Carbohydrates
III.1.1.1 MONOSACCHARIDES
III.1.1.2 OLIGOSACCHARIDES
III.1.1.3 POLYSACCHARIDES
III.1.2 Plant acids
III.2 PHENOLICS. CHEMISTRY AND BIOSYNTHESIS OF PHENOLIC SUBSTANCES
III.2.1 Aromatic amino acids and simple benzoic acid derivatives
III.2.2 Cinnamic acid derivatives
III.2.3 Lignans and lignin
III.2.4 Phenylpropane derivatives
III.2.5 Benzoic acid derivatives originating from cinnamic acid
III.2.6 Coumarins
III.2.7 Cinnamoyl ketides: styrylpyrones, diarylheptanes, stilbenes
III.2.8 FLAVONOIDS
III.2.9 Flavanolignans
III.2.10 Xanthones
III.2.11 Tannins
III.2.12 Quinones, naphthoquinones
III.2.13 Anthraquinone and naphthodianthrone derivatives
III.2.14 Phloroglucin derivatives
III.2.15 Cannabinoids
III.3 CHEMISTRY AND BIOSYNTHESIS OF POLYKETIDES
III.3.1 Biosynthesis of fatty acids
III.3.2 Classification of fatty acids
III.3.3 Fats, fatty oils and waxes
III.3.4 Prostaglandins
III.4 CHEMISTRY AND BIOSYNTHESIS OF TERPENOIDS
III.4.1 Terpenes in the plant kingdom; their biosynthesis and significance
III.4.2 Monoterpenes and essential oils
III.4.2.1 BIOSYNTHESIS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF MONOTERPENES
III.4.2.2 ESSENTIAL OILS
III.4.2.2.1 Characteristics of essential oils and their role in the plant kingdom
III.4.2.2.2 Selectivity of essential oil extraction methods and their effect on the composition
III.4.2.2.3 Authenticity tests on essential oils using chiral (enantioselective) gas chromatography
III.4.2.2.4 Significance of essential oils for pharmaceutical and other purposes
III.4.3 Non-volatile monoterpene derivatives: iridoids, secoiridoids
III.4.4 Sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene lactones
III.4.5 Diterpenes
III.4.5.1 ACYCLIC DITERPENES
III.4.5.2 CYCLIC DITERPENES
III.4.6 Triterpenes
III.4.6.1 BIOSYNTHESIS AND TYPES OF STEROLS AND STEROIDS
III.4.6.1.1 Plant sterols (phytosterols) (C27–C29)
III.4.6.1.2 Plant steroids
III.4.6.2 BIOSYNTHESIS, TYPES AND MAJOR REPRESENTATIVES OF TETRA- AND PENTACYCLIC TRITERPENES
III.4.6.2.1 Tetracyclic triterpenes
III.4.6.2.2 Pentacyclic triterpenes
III.4.7 Tetraterpenes
III.5 CHEMISTRY AND BIOSYNTHESIS OF AZOTOIDS
III.5.1 Non-alkaloids containing nitrogen (e.g. biogenic amines, peptides)
III.5.2 Alkaloids
III.5.2.1 ALKALOIDS OF ORNITHINE ORIGIN
III.5.2.1.1 Pyrrolidine, tropane and ecgonine alkaloids
III.5.2.1.2 Pyrrolizidine alkaloids
III.5.2.2 ALKALOIDS OF LYSINE ORIGIN AND PSEUDOALKALOIDS WITH A PIPERIDINE SKELETON
III.5.2.2.1 Piperidine alkaloids
III.5.2.2.2 Pseudoalkaloids with a piperidine skeleton
III.5.2.2.3 Quinolizidine alkaloids
III.5.2.2.4 Indolizidine alkaloids
III.5.2.3 PYRIDINE ALKALOIDS DERIVED FROM NICOTINIC ACID
III.5.2.4 ALKALOIDS OF PHENYLALANINE AND TYROSINE ORIGIN
III.5.2.4.1 Biosynthesis of phenethylamine protoalkaloids
III.5.2.4.2. Biosynthesis of simple tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids
III.5.2.4.3 Biosynthesis of benzyltetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids
III.5.2.4.4 Biosynthesis of phenethylisoquinoline alkaloids
III.5.2.4.5 Biosynthesis of monoterpenoid isoquinoline alkaloids
III.5.2.4.6 Biosynthesis of Amaryllidaceae alkaloids
III.5.2.5. ALKALOIDS OF TRYPTOPHAN ORIGIN
III.5.2.5.1 Simple indole alkaloids
III.5.2.5.2 Simple β-carboline alkaloids
III.5.2.5.3 Monoterpenoid indole alkaloids
III.5.2.5.4 Pyrrolidinoindole alkaloids
III.5.2.5.5 Biosynthesis of hemiterpenoid indole alkaloids
III.5.2.6 IMIDAZOLE ALKALOIDS OF HISTIDINE ORIGIN
III.5.2.7 PSEUDOALKALOIDS
III.5.2.7.1 Pseudoalkaloids of terpenoid origin
III.5.2.7.2 Pseudoalkaloids of nucleotide origin
III.5.3 Glycosides of amino acid origin that decompose to form volatile compounds
III.5.3.1 CYANOGENIC GLYCOSIDES
III.5.3.2 GLUCOSINOLATES (MUSTARD OIL GLUCOSIDES)
References (Chapter III)
Chapter IV DISCUSSION OF HERBAL DRUGS BASED ON THE BIOGENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF THEIR MAIN ACTIVE COMPONENTS
IV.1 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING SACCHARIDES
IV.1.1 Herbal drugs containing carbohydrates
IV.1.1.1 MONOSACCHARIDES
IV.1.1.2 OLIGOSACCHARIDES
IV.1.1.3 POLYSACCHARIDES
IV.1.1.3.1 Homopolysaccharides
IV.1.1.3.2 Heteropolysaccharides
IV.1.2 Herbal drugs containing phytoacids
IV.2 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING PHENOLICS
IV.2.1 Herbal drugs containing simple benzoic acid and cinnamic acid derivatives
IV.2.2 Herbal drugs containing lignans and flavanolignans
IV.2.3 Herbal drugs containing coumarins
IV.2.4 Herbal drugs containing styrylpyrone, stilbene, diarylheptane and arylalkanone derivatives
IV.2.5 Herbal drugs containing flavonoids
IV.2.6 Herbal drugs containing tannins
IV.2.7 Herbal drugs containing naphthoquinone
IV.2.8 Herbal drugs containing anthraquinone derivatives
IV.2.9 Herbal drugs containing phloroglucin derivatives
IV.2.10 Herbal drug containing terpenophenolics
IV.3 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING POLYKETIDES
IV.3.1 Fatty oil herbal drugs
IV.4 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING TERPENOIDS
IV.4.1 Monoterpene herbal drugs (aromatics) and volatile oils
IV.4.1.1 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING ACYCLIC MONOTERPENES
IV.4.1.2 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING MONOCYCLIC MONOTERPENES
IV.4.1.3 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING BICYCLIC MONOTERPENES
IV.4.1.4 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING AROMATIC MONOTERPENES
IV.4.2 Herbal drugs containing sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene lactones (aromatic bitters)
IV.4.3 Herbal drugs containing non-volatile monoterpene derivatives
IV.4.3.1 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING SECOIRIDOID BITTER SUBSTANCES (BITTERS)
IV.4.3.2 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING IRIDOIDS
IV.4.4 Herbal drugs/spices containing phenylpropane derivatives and their volatile oils and arylalkane derivatives
IV.4.5 Herbal drugs containing diterpenes
IV.4.6 Herbal drugs containing triterpenes
IV.4.6.1 STEROID DRUGS
IV.4.6.1.1 Herbal drugs rich in phytosterols and sterol glycosides
IV.4.6.1.2 Herbal drugs containing sterols and sterol acids of the lanostane type
IV.4.6.1.3 Herbal drugs containing spirostane and furostane steroidal saponins
IV.4.6.1.4 Herbal drugs containing cardiac glycosides with a sterane skeleton (cardiotonics)
IV.4.6.2 TETRAAND PENTACYCLIC TRITERPENE HERBAL DRUGS
IV.4.6.2.1 Herbal drugs containing tetracyclic triterpene saponins of the dammarane type
IV.4.6.2.2 Herbal drugs containing pentacyclic triterpene saponins of the α- and β-amyrin type
IV.5 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING AZOTOIDS
IV.5.1 Nitrogen containing non alkaloid compounds in herbal drugs
IV.5.2 Herbal drugs containing alkaloids
IV.5.2.1 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING ALKALOIDS OF ORNITHINE ORIGIN
IV.5.2.2 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING ALKALOIDS WITH PIPERIDINE SKELETONS, ORIGINATING FROM LYSINE
IV.5.2.3 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING ALKALOIDS OF NICOTINIC ACID ORIGIN
IV.5.2.4 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING ALKALOIDS OF PHENYLALANINE (TYROSINE, DOPA) ORIGIN
IV.5.2.5 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING ALKALOIDS OF TRYPTOPHAN ORIGIN
IV.5.2.6 HERBAL DRUGS CONTAINING IMIDAZOLE ALKALOIDS OF HISTIDINE ORIGIN
IV.5.2.7 PSEUDOALKALOIDS
IV.5.3 Glycoside drugs of amino acid origin, containing nitrogen alone or nitrogen and sulphur, which decompose to form toxic volatile compounds
IV.5.3.1 CYANOGENIC GLYCOSIDES
IV.5.3.2 GLUCOSINOLATES (MUSTARD OIL GLUCOSIDES)
References (Chapter IV)
Chapter V BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF COMPOUNDS OF PLANT ORIGIN
V.1 CLASSIFICATION OF PHARMACOLOGICALLY ACTIVE PLANT COMPOUNDS ACCORDING TO THEIR BIOGENESIS; STRUCTURE–ACTIVITY CORRELATIONS
V.1.1 Pharmaceutical research strategies based on natural substances
V.1.2 Active ingredients of plant origin; structure–activity correlations
V.2 ACTIVE PLANT COMPOUNDS IN THE TREASURE-HOUSE OF MEDICINES; THE PLACE OF PHYTOTHERAPY IN THERAPEUTICS
V.2.1 The development of phytotherapy
V.2.2 Use of herbal drugs for phytotherapy
V.2.3 Active components from medicinal and food plants in targeted cancer therapy
V.3 OTHER SIGNIFICANT USES OF MEDICINAL HERBS
V.3.1 Medicinal herbs in complementary and traditional pharmaceutical systems
V.3.2 Role of nutritive and non-nutritive substances in nutrition
V.3.2.1 FUNCTIONAL FOODS, DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS
V.3.2.2 MEDICINAL HERBS AS THE RAW MATERIALS OF TEA BLENDS
V.3.2.3 HERBAL DRUGS AS HERBS AND SPICES
V.3.2.4 IMMUNOSTIMULANT POLYSACCHARIDES IN FUNGI
V.3.2.5 BIOLOGICALLY VALUABLE COMPOUNDS IN ALGAE – THE PHARMACOGNOSY OF ALGAE
V.4 TOXIC PLANT COMPOUNDS, PLANT POISONING
V.4.1 TOXIC PLANTS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE
V.4.2 Description of toxic plants, grouped according to the chemical structure of their toxic compounds
V.4.2.1 POISONOUS PLANTS CONTAINING PLANT ACIDS AND THEIR ACID DERIVATIVES
V.4.2.2 POISONOUS PLANTS CONTAINING PHENOLICS
V.4.2.3 POISONOUS PLANTS CONTAINING POLYYNES (POLYACETYLENES)
V.4.2.4 POISONOUS PLANTS CONTAINING TERPENE DERIVATIVES
V.4.2.4.1 Monoterpenes
V.4.2.4.2 Diterpenes
V.4.2.4.3 Sesquiterpene lactones
V.4.2.4.4 Triterpene/steroid derivatives
V.4.2.5 TOXIC PLANTS CONTAINING AZOTOIDS
V.4.2.5.1 Amino acids
V.4.2.5.2 Lectins, toxic proteins
V.4.2.5.3 Cyanogenic compounds
V.4.2.5.4 Alkaloids
References (Chapter V)
Chapter VI PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY
PRODUCTION OF PHARMACOLOGICALLY ACTIVE COMPOUNDS USING BIOTECHNOLOGICAL METHODS
THE CONCEPT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY, TOTIPOTENCY
HIGHER PLANTS AS DRUG SOURCES
VI.1 BACKGROUND OF PLANT CELL AND TISSUE CULTURING
VI.1.1 Nutrient medium composition
VI.1.2 Widely used types of in vitro culture
VI.1.3 Special optimisation methods for active component production in in vitro plant cultures
VI.1.3.1 ELICITATION
VI.1.3.2 PHYSICAL STRESS (E.G. ULTRASOUND)
VI.1.3.3 IMMOBILISATION
VI.2 PLANT CELL AND TISSUE CULTURES AS SOURCES OF PHARMACOLOGICALLY ACTIVE COMPOUNDS
VI.3 PLANT GENE TECHNOLOGY PROCEDURES
VI.3.1 Indirect gene transfer
VI.3.2 Direct gene transfer, vectorless techniques
VI.3.3 Genome editing, precision breeding
VI.4 ACTIVE COMPONENT PRODUCTION OF ORGANISMS DEVELOPED USING GENETIC MODIFICATION (GM) OR GENOME EDITING
VI.4.1 Major gene engineering developments that serve the interests of mankind
VI.4.2 Farming for Pharmaceuticals / molecular farming
VI.4.3 Ethical questions, legal regulation
Epilogue
References (Chapter VI)
Chapter VII APPENDIX
Herbal drugs listed in the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.10.)
Herbal drug powders listed in the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.10.)
Essential oils listed in the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.10.)
Vegetable fatty oils, fats and waxes listed in the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.10.)
Herbal drug extracts listed in the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.10.)
Herbal drug tinctures listed in the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.10.)
INDEX