Foundations of Physics, 2nd Edition

Cover
Half-Title
Title
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1: The Language of Physics
1.0 Introduction
1.1 The SI System of Units
1.1.1 Derived Units
1.1.2 Energy
1.1.3 Viscosity
1.2 Dimensions
1.2.1 Method of Dimensions
1.3 Scientific Notation, Prefixes, and Significant Figures
1.4 Uncertainties
1.4.1 Types of Uncertainty
1.4.2 Combining Uncertainties
1.5 Dealing with Random and Systematic Experimental Errors
1.5.1 Random Errors
1.5.2 Systematic Errors
1.6 Differential Calculus
1.6.1 Derivatives and Rates of Change
1.6.1.1 Second Derivatives
1.6.2 Maximum and Minimum Values
1.7 Differential Equations
1.8 Integral Calculus
1.9 Vectors and Scalars
1.9.1 Adding Vectors
1.9.2 Resolving Vectors into Components
1.9.3 Multiplying Vectors
1.9.3.1 Scalar Product
1.9.3.2 Vector Product
1.10 Symmetry Principles
1.11 Exercises
Chapter 2: Representing and Analyzing Data
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Experimental Variables
2.2 Recording Data
2.3 Straight-Line Graphs
2.3.1 Interpreting Straight-Line Graphs
2.3.2 Analyzing Straight-Line Graphs
2.4 Plotting Graphs and Using Error Bars
2.4.1 Plotting Graphs by Hand
2.4.2 Finding a Gradient from a Straight-Line Graph
2.4.3 Using a Spreadsheet Program (e.g., Excel)
2.4.4 Using Error Bars
2.5 Logarithms
2.5.1 Logarithmic Scales and Logarithms
2.5.2 Using Logarithms
2.6 Testing Mathematical Relationships between Variables
2.6.1 Direct Proportion
2.6.2 Inverse Proportion
2.6.3 Inverse-Square Law
2.6.4 Power Law
2.6.5 Exponential Decay or Growth
2.7 Exercises
Chapter 3: Capturing, Displaying, and Analyzing Motion
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Motion Terminology
3.2 Graphs of Motion
3.3 Equations of Motion for Constant Acceleration: The Suvat Equations
3.3.1 Derivation 1: From Graphs of Motion
3.3.2 Derivation 2: Using Calculus
3.4 Projectile Motion
3.4.1 Independence of Horizontal and Vertical Components of Motion
3.4.2 Parabolic Paths
3.4.3 The Range of a Projectile
3.5 Equation of Motion
3.6 Methods to Capture and Display Graphs of Motion
3.6.1 Motion Sensors and Dataloggers
3.6.2 Light Gates
3.6.3 Mobile Phones and Tablets
3.6.3.1 Accelerometer Sensor
3.6.3.2 Video Capture
3.7 Exercises
Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium
4.1 Force as a Vector
4.1.1 Free-Body Diagrams
4.1.2 Resolving Forces
4.1.3 Finding a Resultant Force
4.2 Mass, Weight, and Center of Gravity
4.2.1 Mass
4.2.2 Weight
4.2.3 Center of Gravity
4.3 Equilibrium of Coplanar Forces
4.3.1 Using the Triangle of Forces to Solve Equilibrium Problems
4.3.2 Resolving Forces to Solve Equilibrium Problems
4.4 Turning Effects of a Force: Moments, Torques, and Couples
4.4.1 Moments and Torques
4.4.2 Resultant Moment
4.4.3 Couples
4.4.4 The Principle of Moments
4.5 Stability
4.5.1 Types of Mechanical Equilibrium
4.5.2 Degrees of Stability
4.6 Frictional Forces
4.6.1 The Origin of Frictional Forces Between Surfaces in Contact
4.6.2 Static and Dynamic (Kinetic) Friction
4.6.3 The Coefficients of Friction
4.6.4 Measuring the Coefficient of Static Friction
4.6.5 Measuring the Coefficient of Dynamic (Kinetic) Friction
4.7 Exercises
Chapter 5: Newtonian Mechanics
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion
5.1.1 Newton’s First Law of Motion
5.1.2 Galilean Relativity
5.1.3 Newton’s Second Law of Motion
5.1.4 Free Fall
5.1.5 Newton’s Third Law of Motion
5.2 Linear Momentum
5.2.1 Newton’s Second Law in Terms of Linear Momentum
5.2.2 Impulse and Change of Momentum
5.2.3 Conservation of Linear Momentum
5.3 Work Energy and Power
5.3.1 Work
5.3.2 Gravitational Potential Energy Changes (Uniform Field)
5.3.3 Kinetic Energy
5.3.4 The Law of Conservation of Energy
5.3.5 Energy and Momentum in a 2D Collision
5.3.6 Energy Transfers
5.3.7 Power
5.4 Energy Resources
5.5 Propulsion Systems
5.5.1 Jet Propulsion
5.5.2 Rockets
5.5.3 Radiation Pressure
5.6 Frames of Reference
5.6.1 The Center of Mass Frame
5.6.2 The Galilean Transformation
5.7 Theoretical Mechanics
5.7.1 Force and Energy
5.7.2 Lagrangian Mechanics
5.8 Exercises
Chapter 6: Fluids
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Hydrostatic Pressure
6.1.1 Excess Pressure Caused by a Column of Fluid
6.1.2 Atmospheric Pressure
6.1.3 Using a Manometer to Measure Pressure Differences
6.1.4 Barometers
6.1.5 Dams
6.2 Buoyancy and Archimedes Principle
6.2.1 Buoyancy Forces
6.2.2 Archimedes’ Principle
6.2.3 Flotation
6.3 Viscosity
6.3.1 The Coefficient of Viscosity
6.4 Fluid Flow
6.4.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
6.4.2 The Equation of Continuity
6.4.3 Drag Forces in a Fluid
6.4.4 Stokes’ Law
6.4.5 Turbulent Drag
6.4.6 The Bernoulli Equation
6.4.7 The Bernoulli Effect
6.4.8 Viscous Flow Through a Horizontal Pipe – The Poiseuille Equation
6.4.9 Measuring the Coefficient of Viscosity
6.5 Measuring Fluid Flow Rates
6.5.1 A Venturi Meter
6.5.2 A Pitot Tube
6.6 Exercises
Chapter 7: Mechanical Properties
7.1 Density
7.2 Inter-atomic Forces
7.3 Stretching Springs
7.3.1 The Spring Constant
7.3.2 Springs in Series and in Parallel
7.3.3 Elastic Potential Energy (Strain Energy)
7.4 Stress and Strain
7.4.1 The Young’s Modulus
7.4.2 Experimental Measurement of Young’s Modulus for a Metal Wire
7.4.3 Stress Versus Strain Graph for a Ductile Metal
7.4.4 Rubber Hysteresis
7.5 Material Terminology
7.6 Material Types
7.7 Exercises
Chapter 8: Thermal Physics
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Thermal Equilibrium
8.2 Measuring Temperature
8.3 Temperature Scales
8.4 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
8.4.1 Conduction
8.4.2 Convection
8.4.3 Radiation
8.5 Black Body Radiation
8.6 Heat Capacities
8.6.1 Specific Heat Capacity
8.6.2 Molar Heat Capacities of Gases
8.6.3 Measuring Specific Heat Capacity
8.7 Specific Latent Heat
8.8 Exercises
Chapter 9: Gases
9.1 The Gas Laws
9.1.0 Introduction
9.1.1 Boyle’s Law
9.1.2 Charles’s Law
9.1.3 Gay Lussac’s Law (The Pressure Law)
9.2 The Ideal Gas Equation
9.3 The Kinetic Theory of Gases
9.3.1 Assumptions of the Kinetic Theory
9.3.2 Explaining Gas Pressure
9.3.3 Molecular Kinetic Energy and Temperature
9.3.4 Molar Heat Capacities of an Ideal Monatomic Gas
9.3.5 Equipartition of Energy
9.3.6 The Law of Dulong and Petit
9.3.7 Graham’s Law of Diffusion
9.3.8 The Speed of Sound in a Gas
9.4 The Maxwell Distribution
9.5 The Boltzmann Factor and Activation Processes
9.6 The First Law of Thermodynamics
9.6.1 Internal Energy
9.6.2 Heating, Working, and the First Law of Thermodynamics
9.6.3 Work Done by an Ideal Gas
9.6.4 Thermodynamic Changes
9.7 Heat Engines and Indicator Diagrams
9.7.1 What Is a Heat Engine?
9.7.2 Indicator Diagrams
9.7.3 The Otto Cycle
9.7.4 The Diesel Cycle
9.8 Exercises
Chapter 10: Statistical Thermodynamics and the Second Law
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Reversible and Irreversible Processes
10.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics as a Macroscopic Principle
10.2.1 Macroscopic Statements of the Second Law
10.2.2 Heat Transfer and Entropy
10.2.3 Entropy and Maximum Efficiency of a Heat Engine
10.3 Entropy and Number of Ways
10.3.1 Macro-state and Micro-states
10.3.2 Entropy and Number of Ways
10.3.3 Poincaré Recurrence
10.4 What Is Temperature?
10.5 Absolute Zero and Absolute Entropy
10.5.1 Entropy at Absolute Zero
10.5.2 Calculating Absolute Entropy
10.5.3 Entropy Changes for an Ideal Gas
10.6 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
10.6.1 Refrigerators
10.6.2 Heat Pumps
10.7 Implications of the Second Law
10.7.1 The Second Law, the Arrow of Time, and the Universe
10.7.2 The Second Law and Living Things
10.7.3 Entropy and Energy Availability
10.8 Exercises
Chapter 11: Oscillations
11.0 Oscillations
11.1 Capturing and Displaying Oscillatory Motion
11.1.1 Graphs and Equations of Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration
11.1.2 Phase and Phase Difference
11.2 Simple Harmonic Motion
11.2.1 Equation of Motion for Simple Harmonic Motion
11.2.2 Physical Conditions for Simple Harmonic Motion
11.3 The Mass-Spring Oscillator
11.4 The Simple Pendulum
11.5 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion
11.5.1 Variation of Energy with Time
11.5.2 Variation of Energy with Position
11.5.3 Damping
11.6 Forced Oscillations and Resonance
11.7 Exercises
Chapter 12: Rotational Dynamics
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Angles
12.1.1 Measuring Angles in Radians
12.1.2 Small Angle Approximations
12.2 Describing Uniform Circular Motion
12.2.1 Angular Displacement, Angular Velocity, and Angular Acceleration
12.3 Centripetal Acceleration and Centripetal Force
12.3.1 Centripetal Acceleration
12.3.2 Centripetal Force
12.3.3 Centripetal Not Centrifugal
12.3.4 Moving in Uniform Circular Motion
12.4 Circular Motion, Simple Harmonic Motion, and Phasors
12.5 Rotational Kinematics
12.5.1 Equations for Uniform Angular Acceleration
12.5.2 Rotational Kinetic Energy
12.5.3 Angular Momentum
12.5.4 The Second Law of Motion for Rotation.
12.5.5 Conservation of Angular Momentum
12.6 Deriving Expressions for Moments of Inertia
12.6.1 Moment of Inertia of One or More Point Masses
12.6.2 Moment of Inertia of a Rod
12.6.3 Moment of Inertia of a Cylindrical Shell and a Uniform Cylinder
12.6.4 Moment of Inertia of a Uniform Sphere
12.7 Torque Work and Power
12.8 Rotational Oscillations, the Compound Pendulum
12.9 Exercises
Chapter 13: Waves
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Describing and Representing Waves
13.1.1 Basic Wave Terminology
13.1.2 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
13.1.3 Graphs of Wave Motion
13.1.4 Equation for a One-Dimensional Traveling Wave
13.1.5 Amplitude and Intensity
13.2 Reflection
13.3 Refraction
13.3.1 Refraction at a Boundary Between Two Different Media
13.3.2 Snell’s Law of Refraction
13.3.3 Absolute and Relative Refractive Indices
13.3.4 Total Internal Reflection
13.3.5 Optical Fibers
13.3.6 Dispersion
13.4 Polarization
13.4.1 What Is Polarization?
13.4.2 Polarizing Filters
13.4.3 Rotation of the Plane of Polarization
13.4.4 Polarization by Reflection and Scattering
13.5 Exercises
Chapter 14: Light
14.1 Light as an Electromagnetic Wave
14.1.1 Waves or Particles?
14.1.2 Electromagnetism
14.1.3 Electromagnetic Waves
14.1.4 Measuring the Speed of Light
14.1.5 Maxwell’s Equations and the Speed of Light
14.1.6 Defining Speed, Time, and Distance
14.2 Ray Optics
14.2.1 Thin Lenses
14.2.2 Predictable Rays for Thin Lenses
14.2.3 Images
14.2.4 Image Formation with a Convex Lens
14.2.5 Image Formation with a Concave Lens
14.2.6 Object at Infinity
14.2.7 The Lens Equation
14.2.8 Virtual Image Formed by a Plane Mirror
14.2.9 Real and Apparent Depth
14.3 Optical Instruments
14.3.1 An Astronomical Refracting Telescope
14.3.2 An Astronomical Reflecting Telescope (Newtonian Telescope)
14.3.3 A Compound Microscope
14.4 The Doppler Effect
14.4.1 The Doppler Effect for Electromagnetic Waves
14.4.2 “Red Shift” and “Blue Shift”
14.5 Exercises
Chapter 15: Superposition Effects
15.0 Superposition Effects
15.1 Two-Source Interference
15.1.1 Demonstrating Superposition Effects with Sound
15.1.2 Demonstrating Superposition Effects with Light
15.1.3 Using the Double Slit Experiment to Find the Wavelength of Light
15.1.4 Superposition of Harmonic Waves
15.2 Diffraction Gratings
15.2.1 The Diffraction Grating Formula
15.2.2 Spectroscopy
15.2.3 Spectrometers
15.3 Diffraction by Slits and Holes
15.3.1 Diffraction by a Narrow Slit
15.3.2 Analysis of the Single Slit Diffraction Pattern
15.3.3 Diffraction Through a Circular Hole
15.3.4 Resolving Power and the Rayleigh Criterion
15.4 Standing (Stationary) Waves
15.4.1 Standing Waves on a String (Melde’s Experiment)
15.4.2 The Mathematics of Standing Waves
15.5 Exercises
Chapter 16: Sound
16.1 The Nature and Speed of Sound
16.2 The Decibel Scale
16.3 Standing Waves in Air Columns
16.4 Measuring the Speed of Sound
16.5 Ultrasound
16.6 Analysis and Synthesis of Sound
16.7 Exercises
Chapter 17: Electric Charge and Electric Fields
17.1 Electric Charge
17.2 Electrostatics
17.2.1 Charging by Friction
17.2.2 The Gold Leaf Electroscope
17.2.3 Using a Coulomb Meter
17.3 Electrostatic Forces
17.3.1 Coulomb’s Law
17.3.2 Investigating Electrostatic Forces
17.4 The Electric Field
17.4.1 Electric Field Strength
17.4.2 Electric Field Strength of a Point Charge
17.4.3 Gauss’s Law
17.4.4 Using Gauss’s Theorem
17.5 Electric Potential Energy and Electric Potential
17.5.1 Electric Potential and Potential Difference
17.5.2 Electric Potential Gradient and Electric Field Strength
17.5.3 Accelerating Charged Particles in an Electric Field
17.5.4 Deflecting Charged Particles in an Electric Field
17.5.5 The Absolute Electric Potential of a Point Charge
17.6 Exercises
Chapter 18: DC Electric Circuits
18.0 Direct Current (DC) Circuits and Conventional Current
18.1 Charge and Current
18.1.1 Charge Carriers and Charge Carrier Density
18.1.2 Measuring Current
18.1.3 Currents in Circuits – Kirchhoff’s First Law
18.2 Measuring Potential Difference
18.2.1 EMF Potential Difference and Voltage
18.2.2 Kirchhoff’s Second Law
18.3 Resistance
18.3.1 Measuring Resistance
18.3.2 Current–Voltage Characteristics
18.3.3 Resistors in Series and in Parallel
18.3.4 Resistivity
18.4 Electrical Energy and Power
18.4.1 EMF and Internal Resistance of a Real Cell
18.4.2 Measuring the Internal Resistance and emf of a Cell
18.4.3 Power Transfer from a Real Cell to a Load Resistor
18.5 Resistance Networks
18.5.1 Potential Dividers
18.5.2 Using Kirchhoff’s Laws to Solve Resistance Networks
18.6 Semiconductors and Superconductors
18.6.1 Semiconductors
18.6.2 Variation of Resistance of a Metal with Temperature
18.7 Exercises
Chapter 19: Capacitance
19.1 What Is a Capacitor?
19.1.1 Capacitors and Charge
19.1.2 Capacitance
19.1.3 Energy Stored on a Charged Capacitor
19.1.4 Efficiency of Charging a Capacitor
19.2 The Parallel Plate Capacitor
19.3 Capacitor Charging and Discharging
19.3.1 Equations for Capacitor Discharge
19.3.2 Equations for Capacitor Charging
19.4 Capacitors in Series and Parallel
19.4.1 Capacitance of Capacitors in Series
19.4.2 Capacitors in Parallel
19.5 The Capacitance of a Charged Sphere
19.6 Exercises
Chapter 20: Magnetic Fields
20.0 The Magnetic Field
20.1 Permanent Magnets
20.2 Magnetic Forces on Electric Currents and Moving Charges
20.2.1 The Magnetic Force on an Electric Current
20.2.2 The Force on a Moving Charge
20.2.3 The Path of a Moving Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field
20.2.4 The Velocity-Selector: Crossed Electric and Magnetic Fields
20.3 The Magnetic Fields Created by Electric Currents
20.3.1 The Biot–Savart Law
20.3.2 The Magnetic Field at the Center of a Narrow Coil
20.3.3 The Magnetic Field of a Long Straight Current-Carrying Wire
20.3.4 The Magnetic Field Along the Axis of a Solenoid
20.3.5 Ampère’s Theorem
20.4 Electric Motors
20.4.1 The Turning Effect on a Coil in a Uniform Magnetic Field
20.4.2 A Simple DC Electric Motor
20.5 Exercises
Chapter 21: Electromagnetic Induction
21.1 Induced emfs
21.1.1 What Is Electromagnetic Induction?
21.1.2 Electromagnetic Induction Experiments
21.2 The Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
21.2.1 Magnetic Flux and Magnetic Flux Linkage
21.2.2 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction
21.2.3 Changing the Flux-Linkage in a Coil
21.3 Inductance
21.3.1 Self-inductance
21.3.2 The Rise of Current in an Inductor
21.3.3 The Energy Stored in an Inductor
21.3.4 Mutual Inductance
21.4 Transformers
21.4.1 An Ideal Transformer
21.4.2 Transmission of Electrical Energy
21.4.3 Real Transformers
21.5 A Simple AC Generator
21.6 Electromagnetic Damping
21.7 Induction Motors
21.8 Exercises
Chapter 22: AC
22.1 AC and DC
22.1.1 AC Power and rms Values
22.2 Resistance and Reactance
22.2.1 Resistors in AC Circuits
22.2.2 Capacitors in AC Circuits
22.2.3 Inductors in AC Circuits
22.3 Resistance, Reactance, and Impedance
22.3.1 Phasor Diagrams for AC Series Circuits
22.3.2 Impedance
22.4 AC Series Circuits
22.4.1 RC Series Circuit
22.4.2 RL Series Circuit
22.4.3 RCL Series Circuit
22.4.4 Parallel Circuits Containing Resistors, Capacitors, and Inductors
22.5 Electric Oscillators
22.5.1 A Mechanical Analogy
22.6 Exercises
Chapter 23: The Gravitational Field
23.1 Gravitational Forces and Gravitational Field Strength
23.1.1 Newton’s Law of Gravitation
23.1.2 Gravitational Field Strength
23.1.3 The Gravitational Field Strength of the Earth
23.2 Gravitational Potential Energy and Gravitational Potential
23.2.1 Change in Gravitational Potential Energy
23.2.2 Gravitational Potential
23.2.3 Gravitational Field Lines and Equipotentials
23.2.4 Gravitational Potential Energy in the Earth’s Field
23.2.5 Escape Velocity
23.3 Orbital Motion
23.3.1 Early Ideas About Planetary Motion
23.3.2 Circular Orbits
23.3.3 Artificial Satellites
23.4 Tidal Forces
23.4.1 The Origin of Tidal Forces
23.4.2 The Earth’s Ocean Tides
23.5 Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation
23.5.1 Space–Time Curvature
23.5.2 The Equivalence Principle
23.5.3 Gravitational Time Dilation
23.5.4 Gravitational Waves
23.6 Exercises
Chapter 24: Special Relativity
24.1 The Postulates of Special Relativity
24.1.1 Absolute Space
24.1.2 Einstein’s Ideas About the Laws of Physics
24.2 Time in Special Relativity
24.2.1 Time Dilation
24.2.2 The “Twin Paradox”
24.2.3 The Relativity of Simultaneity
24.3 Length Contraction
24.4 The Lorentz Transformation
24.4.1 The Lorentz Transformation Equations
24.4.2 The Velocity Addition Equation
24.5 Mass, Velocity, and Energy
24.5.1 Mass and Velocity
24.5.2 Mass and Energy
24.6 Special Relativity and Geometry
24.6.1 Invariants
24.6.2 Space–Time
24.6.3 Mass, Energy, and Momentum
24.7 Exercises
Chapter 25: Atomic Structure and Radioactivity
25.1 The Nuclear Atom
25.1.1 The Rutherford Scattering Experiment
25.1.2 Closest Approach and Nuclear Size
25.1.3 Using Electron Diffraction to Measure Nuclear Diameter
25.1.4 The Nuclear Atom
25.2 Ionizing Radiation
25.2.1 Types of Ionizing Radiation Emitted by Radioactive Sources
25.3 Attenuation of Ionizing Radiation
25.3.1 Inverse-Square Law of Absorption
25.3.2 Exponential Absorption and the Attenuation Coefficient
25.3.3 Absorption of Beta Radiation
25.3.4 Absorption of Alpha Particles
25.4 The Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation
25.4.1 The Natural Background Radiation
25.4.2 Measuring Radiation Dose
25.4.3 The Effect of Radiation Dose on Human Health
25.4.4 Reducing Risks in the Laboratory
25.5 Radioactive Decay and Half-Life
25.6 Nuclear Transformations
25.6.1 Alpha Decay
25.6.2 Beta-Minus Decay
25.6.3 Gamma Emission
25.6.4 Beta-Plus Emission
25.6.5 Electron-Capture
25.7 Radiation Detectors
25.7.1 The Spark Counter
25.7.2 The Geiger Counter
25.7.3 Using a Geiger Counter to Measure Count Rates
25.8 Using Radioactive Sources
25.8.1 Radiological Dating
25.8.2 Radiological Dating of Rocks
25.9 Exercises
Chapter 26: Nuclear Physics
26.1 Nuclear Energy Changes
26.1.1 Nuclear Binding Energy
26.1.2 Atomic Mass Units (amu)
26.1.3 Energy Released by Nuclear Decays
26.2 Nuclear Stability
26.2.1 Nuclear Configuration and Stability
26.2.2 Nuclear Binding Energy and Stability
26.3 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion
26.3.1 Nuclear Fission
26.3.2 The Principle of the Atomic Bomb
26.3.3 Nuclear Reactors
26.3.4 Plutonium
26.3.5 Nuclear Fusion
26.3.6 Nucleosynthesis
26.3.7 Thermonuclear Weapons
26.3.8 Fusion Reactors
26.4 Particle Physics
26.4.1 Leptons
26.4.2 Hadrons and Quarks
26.4.3 The Fundamental Interactions
26.4.4 The Conservation Laws
26.4.5 The Standard Model
26.4.6 Dark Matter and Dark Energy
26.5 Exercises
Chapter 27: Quantum Theory
27.1 Problems in Classical Physics
27.1.1 Planck and the Black Body Radiation Spectrum
27.1.2 Explaining Heat Capacities
27.1.3 Explaining the Photoelectric Effect
27.1.4 Characteristics of Photoelectric Emission
27.1.5 Measuring the Planck Constant
27.2 Matter Waves
27.2.1 The de Broglie Relation
27.2.2 Electron Diffraction
27.2.3 The Compton Effect
27.3 Wave-Particle Duality
27.3.1 Young’s Double Slit Experiment Revisited
27.3.2 Interpreting Wave-Particle Duality
27.3.3 The Schrödinger Equation
27.4 The Quantum Atom
27.4.1 Bohr’s Model of the Hydrogen Atom
27.4.2 Explaining the Hydrogen Line Spectrum
27.4.3 Electron Waves in Atoms
27.4.4 The Schrödinger Atom
27.5 Interpretations of Quantum Theory
27.5.1 The Copenhagen Interpretation
27.5.2 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty (Indeterminacy) Principle
27.5.3 The Sum-Over-Histories Approach
27.5.4 The Many-Worlds Theory
27.5.5 Schrödinger’s Cat
27.6 Exercises
Chapter 28: Astrophysics
28.0 Physics Astrophysics and Cosmology
28.1 Stars
28.1.1 Mass
28.1.2 Stars as Black Bodies
28.1.3 Stellar Spectra and the Hertzsprung–Russell Diagram
28.2 Distances
28.2.1 Trigonometric Parallax
28.2.2 The Inverse-Square Law and Cepheid Variables
28.2.3 Hubble’s Law
28.3 Cosmology
28.3.1 The Origin and Age of the Universe
28.3.2 Evidence for the Big Bang
28.4 Exercises
Chapter 29: Medical Physics
29.1 Ultrasound
29.1.1 Overview of Ultrasound
29.1.2 Ultrasound and the Eye
29.1.3 Doppler Ultrasound for Blood Flow Measurements
29.1.4 Using Ultrasound to Break Kidney Stones
29.2 X-rays
29.2.1 Overview of Medical X-rays
29.2.2 Generating X-Rays
29.2.3 Attenuation of X-Rays in Matter
29.2.4 Creating X-Ray Images
29.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
29.3.1 Overview of MRI
29.3.2 The Physics of MRI
29.4 Radioactive Tracers
29.4.1 Overview of the Use of Radioactive Tracers
29.4.2 The Gamma-Camera
29.5 Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scans)
29.5.1 The Physics of PET Scans
29.6 Exercises
Appendix A: Estimations and Fermi Questions
A.0 Fermi and the Trinity Test
A.1 Making Estimations
A.1.1 How Many Air Molecules in the Earth’s Atmosphere?
A.1.2 What Is the Minimum Area for a Parachute?
A.2 Useful Values
A.3 Fermi Questions
A.4 The Drake Equation
A.5 Try These: Estimates and Fermi Questions
Appendix B: Experimental Investigations
B.0 Introduction: The Nature of Science
B.1 Carrying Out an Experiment
B.1.1 Variables
B.1.2 Selecting Measuring Equipment
B.1.3 Planning a Procedure
B.1.4 Risk Assessments
B.1.5 Writing Up an Experiment
B.2 Investigations
Appendix C: Units, Constants, and Equations
C.1 SI Units
C.2 Simple Approximate Combinations of Uncertainties
C.3 Useful Derivatives
C.4 Differential Equations
C.5 Differentials and Integrals
C.6 Equations
C.7 Constants
Appendix D: Solutions to Exercises
Glossary
Index