Fire Safe Use Of Wood In Buildings: Global Design Guide

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
Contributors
Foreword
Introduction
Chapter 1 Timber structures and wood products
Scope of chapter
1.1 Types of building occupancy
1.1.1 Residential buildings
1.1.2 Office buildings
1.1.3 Educational buildings
1.1.4 Public buildings
1.1.5 Industrial buildings
1.2 Types of timber structure
1.2.1 Light timber frame construction
1.2.2 Post-and-beam construction
1.2.3 Mass timber construction
1.2.4 Long-span structures
1.2.5 Hybrid structures
1.2.6 Prefabricated elements and modules
1.3 Structural timber products
1.3.1 Sawn timber
1.3.2 Wood I-joists
1.3.3 Metal plate wood trusses
1.3.4 Structural composite lumber
1.3.5 Glued laminated timber
1.3.6 Mass timber panels
1.3.7 Wood-based panels
1.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2 Fire safety in timber buildings
Scope of chapter
2.1 Fire safety goals
2.1.1 Life safety
2.1.2 Property protection
2.1.3 Insurance views
2.2 Special considerations for timber buildings
2.2.1 Influence of exposed timber surfaces
2.2.2 Exposed timber
2.2.3 Recent reports and guidance on fire safety in timber buildings
2.3 Fire development
2.3.1 Time–temperature curve
2.4 Designing for fire safety
2.4.1 Human behaviour
2.4.2 Access and equipment for firefighters
2.4.3 Fire detection
2.4.4 Active fire protection
2.4.5 Passive fire protection
2.5 Controlling spread of fire
2.5.1 Fire spread within room of origin
2.5.2 Fire spread to adjacent rooms on the same level
2.5.3 Fire spread to other storeys
2.5.4 Fire spread to other buildings
2.6 Fire safety design methods
2.6.1 Prescriptive codes and performance-based codes
2.6.2 Trade-offs/alternative fire design
2.7 Fire severity
2.7.1 Code environment
2.7.2 Fire design time
2.7.3 Calculation methods
2.8 Fire resistance
2.8.1 Objectives of fire resistance
2.8.2 Components of fire resistance
Structural adequacy
Integrity
Insulation
2.8.3 Structural fire resistance
2.9 Timber protection
2.9.1 Encapsulation
2.9.2 Partial encapsulation
2.9.3 Time to start charring and encapsulation falloff times
2.10 Design for the full duration of the fire
2.10.1 Burnout
2.10.2 Design to withstand burnout
2.10.3 Self-extinguishment
2.10.4 Structural design to withstand burnout
2.10.5 Glueline failure
2.11 Special provisions for tall timber buildings
2.12 Fire safety during construction
2.13 Research needs
References
Chapter 3 Fire dynamics
Scope of chapter
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Combustion of wood products
3.2.1 Effect of temperature and radiant heat
3.2.2 Flaming combustion
3.2.3 Smouldering combustion
3.3 Compartment fires
3.3.1 Fire development stages
3.3.2 Fire growth
3.3.3 Flashover
3.3.4 Fully developed fire
3.3.5 External flame projection
3.3.6 External fire spread to neighbouring buildings
3.3.7 Species production
3.4 Compartment fire temperatures
3.4.1 Energy and mass balance
3.4.2 Parametric/natural fires
3.4.3 Localised fires
3.4.4 Travelling fires
3.4.5 Standard fire resistance test
3.5 Fire experiments in CLT compartments
3.6 Other factors for timber compartments
3.6.1 Char fall-off
3.6.2 Protective coverings
3.6.3 Location of exposed or partially protected timber surfaces
3.6.4 Wind effects
3.7 Design to withstand burnout
3.7.1 Design intent
3.7.2 Burnout
3.8 Calculation methods for compartments with exposed timber
3.8.1 Methods using parametric fires
3.8.2 Compartment fire models that include wood pyrolysis
3.8.3 Time equivalence methods
3.8.4 Summary of fire severity models for mass timber buildings with exposed wood
3.9 Worked example
3.9.1 Description
3.9.2 Procedure
3.9.3 Experimental results
3.10 Research needs
References
Chapter 4 Fire safety requirements in different regions
Scope of chapter
4.1 Regulatory control systems for fire safety in buildings
4.1.1 Europe
4.1.2 Canada
4.1.3 USA
4.1.4 China
4.1.5 Japan
4.1.6 Russian Federation
4.1.7 Australia
Performance Solution
Deemed-to-Satisfy Solution (DTS)
4.1.8 New Zealand
4.1.9 Other regions
4.2 International guides and standards
4.2.1 International Fire Engineering Guide (IFEG)
4.2.2 International standards
4.2.3 European guideline
4.3 National and regional differences for the use of wood
4.3.1 Residential buildings
4.3.1.1 Load-bearing timber elements
4.3.1.2 Visible wood surfaces
4.3.2 Office buildings
4.3.3 Differences between European countries
4.4 Conclusions
References
General
Australia
Canada
China
Europe
Japan
New Zealand
Russian Federation
USA
Chapter 5 Reaction to fire performance
Scope of chapter
5.1 Wood products used as interior finish, exterior cladding or roof covering
5.1.1 Sawn timber
5.1.2 Panel products
5.1.3 Engineered structural wood products
5.2 Assessing reaction to fire performance of wood products for compliance with prescriptive regulations
5.2.1 Wall and ceiling linings
International methods
Australia and New Zealand
Europe
Japan
North America
Comparison of reaction to fire classification of surface linings in different countries
5.2.2 Floor coverings
International method
Australia and New Zealand
Europe
North America
5.2.3 Roof coverings
International method
New Zealand
Europe
North America
5.2.4 Façade claddings
International methods
Australia and New Zealand
Europe
Japan
North America
5.3 Reaction to fire characteristics of wood products for performance-based design
5.3.1 Ignitability
Flaming ignition
Glowing ignition
5.3.2 Surface spread of flame
5.3.3 Burning rate
Heat release rate
Pyrolysis models
5.3.4 Production rate of smoke and toxic products of combustion
5.4 Methods for improving the reaction to fire performance of wood products
5.4.1 Fire-retardant treatments, including surface coatings
5.4.2 Durability of reaction to fire performance
References
Chapter 6 Fire-separating assemblies
Scope
6.1 General
6.2 Basic requirements for fire-separating assemblies
6.3 Encapsulation
6.4 Design methods for separating assemblies
6.4.1 Methods for determining the fire resistance of separating assemblies
6.4.2 Classification based on fire testing
6.4.3 Tabulated design data
6.4.4 Simplified calculation methods
Separating Function Method (Europe)
Component Additive Method (US/Canada)
6.4.5 Advanced calculation methods
6.5 Design of assemblies for compartmentation
6.5.1 Light timber frame walls and floors
Insulation and lining materials
Void spaces
Mechanical impact
Linings
Gypsum plasterboards
Cavity insulation
Framing members
6.5.2 Mass timber wall and floor panels
6.5.3 Hollow core timber elements
6.5.4 Timber T-beam floors
6.5.5 Gaps for construction tolerances and shrinkage
6.5.6 Hybrid Timber–Concrete–Composite floors
6.5.7 Protection of floors to prevent fire spreading downwards from a fire above
6.5.8 Openings and penetrations in separating assemblies
References
Chapter 7 Load-bearing timber structures
Scope of chapter
7.1 General
7.2 Estimation of structural loads
7.3 Assessment of fire resistance by testing
7.4 Assessment of fire resistance by calculation
7.5 Charring of timber and wood-based panels
7.5.1 Charring of unprotected timber
7.5.2 Charring of protected timber
7.5.3 One-dimensional charring
7.5.4 Two-dimensional charring
7.5.5 European Charring Model (ECM)
Charring rates in the ECM
Charring of linear structural members
Charring of plane members
7.5.6 European Charring Model for light timber frame assemblies
Cavity insulation
Light timber frame with solid wood members
Light timber frame with I-joists
7.5.7 Charring model in the United States
7.5.8 Charring model in Canada
7.5.9 Charring model in Australia and New Zealand
7.6 Materials for protection of timber structures
7.6.1 Wood-based protection materials
7.6.2 Gypsum boards
7.6.3 Clay plasters
7.6.4 Cement-based boards
7.6.5 Intumescent coatings
7.7 Effect of glueline failure
7.8 Calculation methods for standard fire exposure
7.8.1 Effective cross-section method in Eurocode 5
Strength and stiffness
Effective cross-section
Design of linear and plane timber members
Design of light timber frame floor and wall assemblies
7.8.2 Effective cross-section method in Australia and New Zealand
7.8.3 Effective cross-section method in the United States
Unprotected members
Protected members
7.8.4 Effective cross-section method in Canada
7.9 Advanced calculation methods
7.10 Worked examples
Calculations of glulam beam protected with fire-rated gypsum plasterboard 15 mm
7.10.1 Effective Cross-Section method (Europe)
Effective cross-section:
7.10.2 Effective cross-section method (Canada)
Effective cross-section:
7.10.3 Effective cross-section method (United States)
7.10.4 Summary
References
Chapter 8 Timber connections
Scope of chapter
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Overview of beam-to-column connection typologies
8.2.1 Timber-to-timber connections
8.2.2 External metallic plates
8.2.3 Embedded metal plates
8.2.4 Fully concealed connectors
8.3 Mass timber panel connection typologies
8.3.1 Panel-to-panel: spline, half-lap
8.3.2 Panel-to-panel hold-down connections
8.3.3 CLT wall-to-floor panel connections
8.3.4 Hybrid CLT floor to structural steel frame
8.4 Elevated temperatures in timber connections
8.4.1 Review of fire testing results
8.4.2 Charring in connections
8.4.3 Influence of applied load
8.4.4 Loss of strength behind the char layer: influence of thermal penetration depth
8.4.5 Fire severity
8.5 Design for fire resistance
8.5.1 Failure modes
8.5.2 Beam-to-column bearing connections
8.5.3 Beam-to-column knife–plate connectors
8.5.4 Charring localised to screws
8.5.5 Glued-in dowels and rods
8.6 CLT panel-to-panel connections
8.6.1 Design for fire resistance
8.7 Connections with additional fire protection
8.7.1 Protection with fire-rated board systems
8.7.2 Protection using timber
8.7.3 Protection using intumescent paint
8.7.4 Timber-to-steel connections
8.8 Connection design methods
8.8.1 Char-rate methods
8.8.2 Acceptance criteria
8.8.3 Worked examples
8.8.4 Connection detailing
8.8.5 Guidance documents
8.9 Advanced calculation methods
8.9.1 Modelling of timber connections
8.9.2 Uncoupled models
8.9.3 Coupled thermo-mechanical models
8.10 Further research
References
Chapter 9 Prevention of fire spread within structures
Scope of chapter
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Preventing fire spread by detailed design
9.2.1 Different types of timber constructions
9.2.2 Typical fire spread paths and principles to prevent fire spread
Path I: fire spread through failure of separating elements
Path II: fire spread through joints
Path III: fire spread through junctions
Path IV: fire spread through building services
Path V: fire spread through concealed construction cavities
9.2.3 Construction tolerances
9.3 Fire spread via separating elements, joints and junctions
9.3.1 Fire resistance of separating elements
9.3.2 Fire resistance of joints between structural elements
9.3.3 Seismic gaps
9.4 Fire spread via building service installations and penetrations
9.4.1 General requirements of fire-stopping building services
9.4.2 Concepts of fire protection to building services in multi-storey buildings
9.4.3 Types of building service installations
9.4.4 Penetration fire–stopping systems for walls and floors
9.4.5 Service installations embedded within building elements
9.4.6 Service installation within protected shafts and ducts
9.4.7 Air ventilation ducts through walls and floors
9.4.8 Elevated temperature exhaust system penetrations through walls and floors
9.5 Fire spread via building cavities and ventilation gaps
9.5.1 Main principles to prevent spread of fire and smoke
9.5.2 External and internal wall cavities and suspended ceiling spaces
9.5.3 Cavities between elements of modular construction
Guidelines for fire stops in modular constructions
9.6 Vertical fire spread in exterior facade cavities
References
Chapter 10 Active fire protection by sprinklers
Scope of chapter
10.1 General concepts of active fire protection
10.2 Detection, alarm and smoke management systems
10.3 Sprinkler systems
10.3.1 Objectives of sprinkler systems
10.3.2 Components of sprinkler systems
10.3.3 Wet-pipe and dry-pipe fire sprinkler systems
10.3.4 Residential sprinkler systems
10.3.5 Water mist systems
10.3.6 Sprinklers in earthquake areas
10.4 Sprinkler effects on fire safety
10.4.1 Effects on fire development
10.4.2 Property protection by sprinklers
10.4.3 Life safety by sprinklers
10.4.4 Cost-benefit analysis
10.5 Sprinkler reliability, performance and effectiveness
10.5.1 Sprinkler reliability
10.5.2 Sprinkler effectiveness
10.5.3 Sprinkler management procedures
10.6 Fire safety design with sprinklers: implementation in different countries
10.6.1 Countries with sprinkler requirements for taller timber buildings
10.6.2 Countries with possibilities for alternative fire safety design with sprinklers
Australia
New Zealand
Canada
The United States
Europe
Finland
Sweden
10.6.3 Examples of reduced fire precautions with sprinklers
10.7 Justification for reduced fire precautions with sprinklers
10.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 11 Performance-based design and risk assessment
Scope of chapter
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Performance-based design
11.1.2 Early developments
11.1.3 Overview of the fire safety design process
11.1.4 Pathways for demonstrating compliance
11.1.5 Sources of further information
General References/International Standards
Europe
UK
Australia
New Zealand
The United States
11.2 Hazard analysis and fire scenarios
11.2.1 Overview of hazard analysis process
11.2.2 Overview of fire scenarios
11.2.3 Rationalisation of fire scenarios for quantitative risk assessments
11.2.4 Rationalisation of fire scenarios for deterministic analyses
11.2.5 Prescribed fire scenarios
11.3 Application of analysis methods to timber construction
11.3.1 Hazard identification
11.3.2 Preliminary qualitative and quantitative analysis
11.3.3 Fire scenarios for quantitative risk assessment
11.3.4 Quantitative risk assessment of structure and barrier performance
References
Chapter 12 Robustness in fire
Scope of chapter
12.1 Basics of structural robustness
12.2 Basics of robustness and fire safety engineering
12.3 Normative framework and robustness
12.4 Exposure types
12.5 Consequences resulting from a fire event
12.6 Evaluation of improvements performed in practice
12.6.1 Prevention of progressive collapse for the fire situation
12.6.2 Approaches for improved robustness for timber buildings
12.6.3 Improvement of the robustness for structural timber buildings
12.7 Design of timber buildings for reuse after a fire
12.8 Discussion and conclusion
References
Chapter 13 Building execution and control
Scope of chapter
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Control of workmanship
13.2.1 Installation of fire protection measures
13.2.2 Installation of fire stops and cavity barriers
13.3 Inspection during construction
13.3.1 Inspection of passive fire protection measures
13.3.2 Inspection of active fire protection systems
13.3.3 Coordination of interacting trades
13.3.4 Documentation
13.4 Fire safety during construction
13.4.1 Recommended fire precautions during construction
13.5 Responsibility and enforcement
13.5.1 Responsible parties
13.5.2 Adoption and application
13.6 Preventive measures
13.6.1 Fire safety plan
13.6.2 Fire safety coordinator
13.6.3 Control of ignition sources
Hot works
Electrical equipment
Smoking
Other ignition sources and fuel sources
13.6.4 Control of combustible materials
Stored and waste materials
Storage of combustible building materials
Exposed combustible materials during construction
Protection of light timber frame construction
13.6.5 Prevention against arson
13.6.6 Liaison with fire authorities
13.6.7 Water supplies
13.6.8 Staff training and human activities
Fire safety awareness
Training and fire drills
Fire checks
13.7 Fire detection and suppression
13.7.1 Alarm and detection
13.7.2 Active fire protection
Portable fire extinguishers
Automatic sprinkler system
Hydrants
13.7.3 Compartmentation of the building
13.7.4 Protection of combustible construction
13.7.5 Protection of neighbouring buildings
13.7.6 Means of egress – Escape routes
13.7.7 Fire service access
13.8 Emergency procedures
References
Chapter 14 Firefighting considerations for timber buildings
Scope of chapter
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Traditional fire knowledge
14.3 Fire service concerns related to mass timber buildings
14.4 Light timber frame construction
14.4.1 Light timber frame structures with solid timber members
14.4.2 Light timber frame structures with engineered wood products
14.4.3 Charring in protected light timber frames
14.5 Mass timber structures
14.5.1 Strategies for protection of mass timber structures
14.5.2 Exposed timber structures
14.5.3 Combustible linings
14.5.4 CLT structures
14.6 Tall timber buildings
14.6.1 Sprinkler systems
14.6.2 Firefighter access
14.6.3 Burnout
14.7 Firefighting considerations
14.7.1 Firefighting water supplies
14.7.2 External fire exposure to surrounding buildings
14.7.3 Combustible cores and vertical enclosures
14.7.4 Void spaces and cavities
14.7.5 Identifying voids and fires within voids
14.7.6 Extinguishing fires within a void
14.7.7 Extinguishing fires in wood‐based materials
14.7.8 Extinguishing agents
14.7.9 Non-direct attack
14.7.10 Comparison of extinguishing equipment
14.8 Wind-driven fires
14.8.1 Influence of wind on fire intensity
14.9 Design stage and fire service involvement
14.9.1 Liaison with fire authorities
14.10 Pre-incident planning
14.10.1 Tall timber buildings
14.10.2 Fire service involvement during construction and demolition
14.10.3 Fire system impairment
14.10.4 Fire service site training and familiarisation
14.11 Post-earthquake fires and fire service response
14.12 Future needs
References
Index