Fibers: History, Production, Properties, Market

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Part I: Fundamentals
1: Definitions
1.1 Definition of Fibers and Classification
1.2 Systematic Taxonomy
1.2.1 Natural Vegetable Fibers
1.2.2 Animal Natural Fibers
1.3 Abbreviation
References
2: History
2.1 Natural Fibers
2.1.1 Flax
2.1.2 Hemp
2.1.3 Other Bast Fibers
2.1.4 Cotton
2.1.5 Wool
2.1.6 Silk
2.1.7 Asbestos
2.2 Cellulosic Man-Made Fibers
2.2.1 Nitrocellulose
2.2.2 Process (Copper Process)
2.2.3 Cellulose Acetate
2.2.4 Viscose
2.2.5 Modal
2.2.6 Industrial Production of Filament Yarns
2.2.7 Industrial Production of Staple Fibers
2.2.8 Lyocell
2.3 Protein-Based Man-Made Fibers
2.4 Synthetic Man-Made Fibers
2.4.1 Polyvinyl Chloride
2.4.2 Polyamide
2.4.2.1 Polyamide 66 and Polyamide 6
2.4.2.2 Discovery of Further Polyamide Types
2.4.2.3 Aramid
2.4.3 Polyester
2.4.3.1 Polyester Terephthalate (PET)
2.4.3.2 Polytrimethylene Terephthalate (PTT) and Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT)
2.4.3.3 Other Polyester
2.4.4 Polyacrylonitrile
2.4.5 Polypropylene
2.4.6 Polyethylene
2.4.7 Polylactide
2.4.8 Short Time Travel
2.4.9 Carbon Fibers
2.5 Inorganic Man-Made Fibers
2.5.1 Glass Fibers
2.5.2 Basalt Fibers
2.5.3 Ceramic Fibers
2.6 Metal Fibers
References
3: Market
3.1 World Fiber Production
3.2 Regions Producing Natural Fibers
3.3 Regions and Countries Producing Man-Made Fibers
3.3.1 World
3.3.2 Germany
3.4 Prices
References
4: Internal Structure of Fibers
4.1 Chemical Structure of Fibers
4.2 Structural Models
4.3 Crystallinity
4.3.1 Kinetics of Crystal Formation
4.3.2 Formation of Lamellae and Crystal Growth
4.3.3 Formation of Spherolites
4.3.4 Crystallization Due to Stretching
4.3.5 Determination of the Degree of Crystallinity
4.3.6 Influence on Fiber Properties
4.4 Model Conceptions
4.5 Crystal Structures
4.5.1 Polyamide
4.5.2 Polyester
4.5.3 Aramid
4.5.4 Polyolefins
4.5.5 Polyacrylonitrile
4.5.6 Cellulosic Fibers
4.5.7 Protein Fibers
4.6 Length of the Macromolecules
4.7 Orientation
4.8 Drawing Process
4.9 Summary
References
Part II: Natural Fibers
5: Cotton
5.1 History
5.2 Cultivation, Growth, Varieties
5.2.1 Cultivation
5.2.2 Irrigation
5.2.3 Breeding
5.2.4 Varieties
5.3 Harvest
5.3.1 Hand picking
5.3.2 Mechanical harvesting
5.3.2.1 Spindle Picker
5.3.2.2 Stripper
5.3.2.3 Comparison of Harvesting Methods
5.3.3 Storage and Transport
5.4 Ginning
5.4.1 History
5.4.2 Gin
5.4.3 Tower Dryer
5.4.4 Cylinder Cleaner
5.4.5 Stick Machine
5.4.6 Gin Machine (Gin Stand)
5.4.6.1 Roller Gin
5.4.6.2 Saw Gin
5.4.7 Lint Cleaner
5.4.8 Influence of the Ginning on the Fiber Properties
5.4.9 Bale Press
5.4.10 Bale Size
5.4.11 The Wrapping (Emballage)
5.4.12 Yield
5.5 Composition and Fine Structure
5.5.1 Chemical Structure
5.5.2 Fine Structure
5.6 Properties
5.6.1 Fiber Length
5.6.2 Fiber Fineness
5.6.3 Strength
5.6.4 Trash and Foreign Matter
5.6.5 Color
5.6.6 Maturity
5.6.7 Other Properties
5.7 Classification
5.7.1 Manual Classification
5.7.2 High Volume Instruments (HVI) and Fibre Classifying System (FCS)
5.8 Production, Export, Import
5.8.1 Producer
5.8.2 Exporters
5.8.3 Importers
5.8.4 Consumer
5.8.5 Extra Long Staple Cotton (ELS)
5.9 Important Cotton Producing and Processing Countries
5.9.1 USA
5.9.2 China
5.9.3 India
5.9.4 Pakistan
5.9.5 Central Asia
5.9.6 Australia
5.9.7 Brazil
5.9.8 Egypt
5.9.9 Africa
5.9.10 Turkey
5.9.11 Europe
5.9.11.1 Greece
5.9.11.2 Spain
5.10 Processing in Germany
5.11 Pests
5.11.1 Boll Weevil
5.11.2 Boll Worm
5.11.3 Cotton Louse
5.11.4 Cotton Bug (Stink Bug)
5.11.5 White Fly
5.11.6 Other Diseases
5.11.7 Pest Control
5.12 Genetic Engineering (``Engineered Cotton´´)
5.12.1 General Objectives of Genetic Engineering
5.12.2 Early Research
5.12.3 Genetic Modification of Cotton
5.12.3.1 Herbicide Resistance
5.12.3.2 Insect Resistance
5.12.3.3 Development of Resistances
5.12.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Use of Genetic Engineering in Cotton Cultivation
5.12.5 Market
5.12.5.1 China
5.12.5.2 India
5.13 Organic Cotton
5.13.1 Egypt
5.13.2 India
5.13.3 China
5.13.4 Turkey
5.13.5 Kyrgyzstan
5.13.6 USA
5.13.7 Colored Cotton
5.14 Trade
5.14.1 Forms of Cotton Trade
5.14.2 Stock Exchanges
5.14.3 Futures and Options
5.14.4 Cotlook Indices
5.14.5 Cotton Policy of Producing Countries
5.15 Areas of Application
5.16 Trends
References
6: Bast Fibers
6.1 Flax (Linen)
6.1.1 History
6.1.2 Cultivation
6.1.2.1 Crop Growing
6.1.2.2 Growth
6.1.2.3 Varieties
6.1.2.4 Harvest
6.1.3 Structure
6.1.4 Fiber Extraction
6.1.4.1 Biological Solubilizing
6.1.4.2 Chemical Solubilizing
6.1.4.3 Mechanical Solubilizing (Green Flax Solubilizing)
6.1.4.4 Other Methods
6.1.4.5 Rippling
6.1.4.6 Breaking
6.1.4.7 Scutching
6.1.4.8 Hackling
6.1.4.9 Yarn Production
6.1.5 Properties
6.1.6 Classification
6.1.7 Production
6.1.8 Trade
6.1.9 Applications
6.2 Hemp
6.2.1 History
6.2.2 Cultivation
6.2.2.1 Crop Growing
6.2.2.2 Growth
6.2.2.3 Varieties
6.2.2.4 Harvest
6.2.2.5 Pests
6.2.3 Structure
6.2.4 Fiber Extraction
6.2.4.1 Retting
6.2.4.2 Mechanical Solubilizing
6.2.5 Properties
6.2.6 Production
6.2.7 Trade
6.2.8 Areas of Application
6.3 Jute
6.3.1 History
6.3.2 Growth
6.3.3 Harvest and Preparation
6.3.4 Structure
6.3.5 Properties
6.3.6 Production and Trade
6.3.7 Areas of Application
6.4 Ramie
6.4.1 History
6.4.2 Crop Growing
6.4.3 Varieties
6.4.4 Structure
6.4.5 Fiber Extraction
6.4.6 Properties
6.4.7 Spinning
6.4.8 Production
6.4.9 Areas of Application
6.5 Kenaf
6.6 Nettle Fiber
6.7 Bamboo
6.7.1 History
6.7.2 Cultivation Regions
6.7.3 Properties
6.7.4 Areas of Application
6.8 Property Comparison
References
7: Hard Fibers
7.1 Agave Fibers (Sisal, Henequen)
7.1.1 History
7.1.2 Cultivation
7.1.3 Harvesting and Extraction of the Fibers
7.1.4 Production
7.1.5 Properties
7.1.6 Areas of Application
7.2 Musa Textilis (Manila Hemp, Abac)
7.3 Pineapple
7.4 Lily Fibers
7.5 Grass Fibers
7.6 Palm Fibers
References
8: Fruit Fibers
8.1 Coir Fibers
8.2 Kapok (Wool Tree)
8.3 Poplar Fibers
8.4 Betel Nut Fibers
8.5 Cactus Fibers
References
9: Wool
9.1 Terms
9.2 History
9.3 Sheep Breeds and Breeding
9.3.1 Merino
9.3.2 Lincoln
9.3.3 Corriedale
9.3.4 Polwarth
9.3.5 Romney
9.3.6 Cheviot
9.3.7 Perendale
9.3.8 Border Leicester and English Leicester
9.4 Wool Extraction
9.4.1 Manual Shearing
9.4.2 Mulesing
9.4.3 Mechanical Shearing
9.4.4 Chemical Processes
9.5 Structure of the Wool Fiber
9.5.1 Follicle
9.5.2 Morphology
9.5.3 Biological Composite Structure and Two-Phase Model
9.5.4 Chemical Composition
9.6 Features
9.6.1 Fineness, Length, Crimp, Density, Color, Shine
9.6.2 Physical Properties
9.6.3 Mechanical Properties
9.6.4 Chemical Behavior
9.6.5 Thermal Behavior
9.6.6 Environmental and Usage Behavior
9.7 Classification
9.8 Production
9.8.1 Sheep Flock
9.8.2 World Wool Production
9.8.3 Development of Wool Production
9.8.4 Australia
9.8.4.1 Pastoral Low Rainfall Zone
9.8.4.2 Wheat and Pastoral Zone
9.8.4.3 Pastoral High Rainfall Zone
9.8.5 New Zealand
9.8.6 South Africa
9.8.7 Uruguay
9.8.8 Argentina
9.8.9 United Kingdom
9.8.10 Spain
9.8.11 Germany
9.9 Trade
9.10 Wool Research
9.11 Areas of Application
9.12 Wool Seals
References
10: Fine Animal Hair
10.1 Camel
10.1.1 Dromedary
10.1.2 Bactrian Camel
10.1.3 Llama
10.1.4 Alpaca
10.1.5 Guanaco
10.1.6 Vicuña
10.1.7 Pako vicuña
10.2 Goat
10.2.1 Cashmere
10.2.2 Mohair
10.2.3 Kashgora
10.2.4 Qiviut
10.3 Angora Rabbit
10.4 Yak
10.5 Horsehair
10.6 Dog Hair
10.7 Fur Hair
10.8 Comparison of the Most Important Fine Animal Hair
References
11: Silk
11.1 Terms
11.2 History
11.3 Breeding
11.4 Structure
11.4.1 Crystalline Areas
11.4.2 Fibroin
11.4.3 Sericin
11.5 Classification
11.5.1 Cocoons
11.5.2 Raw Silk
11.6 Reeling
11.7 Terms for Silk Products
11.8 Spinning Mill
11.8.1 Schappe Spinning
11.8.2 Bourette Spinning
11.9 Production
11.10 Properties
11.10.1 Fineness, Density, Color, Luster, Handle
11.10.2 Tenacity and Elongation
11.10.3 Mechanical Properties
11.10.4 Chemical Properties
11.10.5 Thermal Properties
11.10.6 Usage Behavior
11.10.7 Other Properties
11.11 Finishing
11.11.1 Degumming
11.11.2 Weighting (Loading)
11.11.3 Bleaching
11.11.4 Weaving
11.11.5 Dyeing
11.11.6 Printing
11.12 Areas of Application
11.13 Tussah Silk (Tussar or Tasar Silk)
11.14 Other Silks
11.14.1 Butterfly Silk
11.14.2 Byssus
11.14.3 Spider Silk
11.14.3.1 Types of Spider Silk
11.14.3.2 Properties
11.14.3.3 Applications
11.14.3.4 Artificial Spider Silk
References
12: Asbestos
12.1 Terms and Definitions
12.2 History
12.3 Origin, Geology
12.4 Deposits
12.5 Generation
12.6 Classification
12.7 Chemical Composition and Structure
12.7.1 Chrysotile
12.7.2 Amphibole
12.8 Properties
12.8.1 Fineness, Length, Density, Color, Gloss, Handle
12.8.2 Microscopic Image
12.8.3 Mechanical Properties
12.8.4 Physical Behavior
12.8.5 Chemical Behavior
12.8.6 Thermal Behavior
12.9 Production and Consumption
12.10 Environmental Behavior
12.11 Processing
12.12 Areas of Application
12.13 Health Hazards and Damage
12.14 Refurbishment of Buildings Containing Asbestos
12.15 Substitute Materials
References
13: Other Natural Fibers
13.1 Cellulosic Fibers
13.1.1 Akon
13.1.2 Floss Silk Tree
13.1.3 Willow
13.1.4 Woolgrass
13.1.5 Typha
13.1.6 Urena-Ur, Aramina, Congo Jute
13.1.7 Rosella, Java Jute
13.1.8 Sun (Crotolaria juncea)
13.1.9 Lotus Silk
13.1.10 Other Bast Fibers
13.2 Animal Fibers
13.2.1 Siberian Ibex (Yangir)
13.2.2 Tibetan Antelope (Chiru)
13.2.3 Mangalica
13.2.4 Whale Whiskers
References
Part III: Chemical Fibers: Processes and Machines
14: Man-Made Fibers: Polymer Formation Processes
14.1 Extraction of Raw Materials from Oil, Coal and Natural Gas
14.2 Raw Material Extraction from Cellulose
14.3 Raw Material Extraction from Protein
14.4 Polymer Formation
14.4.1 Polymerization
14.4.1.1 Basics
14.4.1.2 Radical Polymerization
14.4.1.3 Ionic Polymerization
14.4.1.4 Process Engineering
14.4.2 Polycondensation
14.4.2.1 Basics
14.4.2.2 Reaction Rate and Turnover
14.4.2.3 Solid State Polycondensation (SSP)
14.4.3 Polyaddition
14.4.4 Comparison of Chain Growth Reaction and Step Growth Reaction
14.4.5 Molecular Weight Distribution
14.5 Formation of Polymers from Several Components: Copolymers
14.5.1 Grafting and Macromonomers
14.5.2 Coextrusion
14.5.3 Additivation
14.6 Recycling
References
15: Aggregates for Polymer Formation
15.1 Reactor Types
15.2 Autoclave
15.3 Disk Ring Reactor
15.4 VK Tube
15.5 Discharge and Booster Pumps
15.6 Tube Flows
15.7 Heat Exchanger
15.7.1 Principles of Heat Exchange
15.7.2 Tube Bundle Heat Exchanger
15.7.3 Electric Heating Tapes
15.7.4 Evaporator with Heat Transfer Oil
15.7.5 Heat Exchanger Types and Their Application
15.8 Static Mixers
15.9 Granulator
15.10 Dryer
15.10.1 Shaft Dryer (Flash Dryer)
15.10.2 Tumble Dryer
15.10.3 Fluidized Bed Dryer
15.10.4 Paddle Dryer
15.10.5 Crystallization
15.10.6 Drying Speed
15.10.7 Energy Balance
References
16: Processes for the Production of Man-Made Fibers
16.1 Process Steps
16.2 Solution Spinning
16.2.1 Dry Spinning
16.2.2 Wet Spinning
16.2.3 Funnel Spinning
16.2.4 Gel Spinning
16.2.5 Liquid Crystal Spinning
16.2.6 Dispersion Spinning
16.2.7 Reaction Spinning
16.3 Melt Spinning
16.4 Spinnability
16.5 Orientation of Macromolecules and Mechanical Properties
16.6 Theory of Drawing
16.6.1 Drafting of Amorphous Filaments
16.6.2 Drafting of Crystalline Filaments
16.7 Force-Elongation Curve During Drafting
16.8 Spinning Orientation and Take-Up Speed
16.9 Spin Dyeing
References
17: Aggregates for the Production of Synthetic Filaments
17.1 Extruder
17.2 Filter
17.2.1 Sand Filter
17.2.2 Fabric Filter
17.2.3 Nonwovens Filter
17.2.4 Revolver Filter
17.3 Spin Pump
17.4 Melt Spinneret
17.4.1 Hole Pattern
17.4.2 Hole Cross Sections
17.4.3 Spinneret Types
17.4.4 Hollow Fibers
17.5 Spinning Packages
17.6 Spinning Beam
17.7 Quench Duct
17.8 Spin Preparation
17.9 Drafting
17.10 Entangling
17.11 Winder
References
18: Aggregates for the Production of Solution Spun Man-Made Fibers
18.1 Reactor
18.2 Filter
18.3 Spinning Pump
18.4 Spinneret
18.5 Winder
References
19: Processes for the Production of Textile Filament Yarns
19.1 POY Process
19.2 FDY Process
19.3 FOY Process
19.4 Performance Increase in POY Spinning of Polyester
19.4.1 Modification of the Spinning Process
19.4.2 Chemical Modification
19.4.3 Physical Modification
References
20: Processes for the Production of Industrial Yarns
20.1 Reactor
20.2 FDY Process
20.3 Draw Twisting
20.4 Cabling
20.4.1 Two-Step Process
20.4.2 Direct Cabling
20.4.3 Yarn Path
20.4.4 Machine
References
21: Process for the Production of Monofilaments
21.1 Production
21.2 Properties and Typical Applications
References
22: Process for the Production of Carpet Yarns
22.1 Spinneret
22.2 Process
Reference
23: Process for the Production of Film Yarns
23.1 Basics
23.2 Technical Data
23.3 Aggregates
23.4 Products
Reference
24: Processes for the Production of Staple Fibers
24.1 Market
24.2 Production
24.2.1 Two-Step Process
24.2.2 Single-Stage Process
24.2.3 Spin-Draw Texturing Process
24.3 Conversion of Fiber Cables
24.3.1 Cutting Conversion
24.3.2 Breaking Converter
24.3.3 Flock Fibers
24.3.4 Baling
24.4 Features
References
25: Processes for the Production of Nonwovens
25.1 Spunbond
25.1.1 Desing of a Spunbond Line
25.1.2 Web Formation
25.1.3 Nonwoven Bonding
25.2 Meltblown Process
25.3 Products
25.4 Market
References
26: Bicomponent Fibers
26.1 Terms
26.1.1 Side-by-Side Type
26.1.2 Core/Sheath Type
26.1.3 Matrix/Fibril Type
26.2 History
26.3 Source Materials
26.4 Manufacturing Technologies
26.4.1 Side-by-Side (S/S)
26.4.2 Core/Sheath (C/S)
26.4.3 Matrix/Fibril Fibers or Islands-in-the-Sea
26.4.3.1 Segmented Pie (Matrix/Fibril Type)
26.5 Fine Fibers
26.6 Properties
26.6.1 Side-by-Side (S/S) Fibers
26.6.2 Core/Sheath Fibers (C/S)
26.6.3 Matrix/Fibril Fibers (M/F)
26.6.4 Tri-component Fibers
26.6.5 Calligraphic Fibers
26.6.6 Physical and Textile-Technological Characteristic Values
26.7 Areas of Application
26.7.1 Side-by-Side Fibers (S/S)
26.7.2 Core/Sheath Fibers (C/S)
26.7.3 Matrix/Fibril Fibers (M/F)
26.8 Market
References
27: Fine Fibers
27.1 Electrospinning
27.1.1 History
27.1.2 Sense and Purpose
27.1.3 Principle
27.1.4 Needleless Spinning
27.1.5 Parameters Influencing the Spinning Result
27.1.5.1 Polymer Molecular Weight
27.1.5.2 Concentration of the Spinning Solution
27.1.5.3 Electric Field
27.1.5.4 Humidity
27.1.6 Influence on Fiber Deposition
27.1.7 Fiber Orientation
27.1.7.1 Rotating Target
27.1.7.2 Rotating Sharpened Disc
27.1.7.3 Rotating Disc with Directional Polymer Application
27.1.7.4 Rotating Collector
27.1.7.5 Rotating Cable Drum
27.1.7.6 Fiber Alignment Via an Interstitial Space
27.1.7.7 Influence of the Distance Between the Target Halves
27.1.7.8 Influence of a Negative Voltage Applied to the Target
27.1.8 Fiber Strength
27.2 Melt Electrospinning
27.3 Flash Spinning
27.4 Centrifugal Spinning
27.5 Areas of Application
References
28: Aerogels
28.1 Manufacturing Principle
28.2 Aerogel Fibers
28.2.1 Sol-Gel Process
28.2.2 Electrospinning
28.3 Features
28.4 Applications
References
29: Texturing
29.1 False Twist Texturing
29.1.1 Principle
29.1.2 Twist Insertion
29.1.3 Heater and Cooling Zone
29.1.4 Yarn Structure
29.1.5 Structure of the Machine
29.1.6 Influencing Variables and Their Effect
29.2 Air-Jet Texturing
29.2.1 Taslan Process
29.2.2 BCF Process
29.3 Other Processes
29.3.1 Twist/Untwist Texturing
29.3.2 Knit Fixation Process
References
Part IV: Synthetic Chemical Fibers: Production and Properties
30: Polyester
30.1 Definition
30.2 History
30.2.1 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
30.2.2 Polytrimethylene Terephthalate (PTT) and Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT)
30.2.3 Other Polyester
30.3 Raw Materials
30.3.1 PET
30.3.2 PTT
30.3.3 PBT
30.4 Production of Polymers
30.4.1 Discontinuous Process
30.4.2 Continuous Process
30.5 Fiber Modification
30.6 Chemical Structure
30.7 Properties of Polyester Fibers
30.7.1 Cross Section Shapes and Types
30.7.2 Mechanical Properties
30.7.3 Special Types
30.7.3.1 High Tenacity Filament Yarns for Technical Applications
30.7.3.2 Low-Pill Staple Fibers for Use in Apparel Textiles
30.7.3.3 High-shrink Fibers
30.7.3.4 Easier to Dye (Deep Dyeing or Carrier-Free Dyeing) Types
30.7.3.5 Types Dyeable with Cationic Dyes (Anionically Modified)
30.7.3.6 Profile Fibers
30.7.3.7 Bicomponent Fibers of the Type S/S (Side by Side)
30.7.3.8 Bicomponent Fibers of the M/F Type (Matrix Fibrils)
30.7.3.9 Microfibers
30.7.4 Physical Properties
30.7.5 Chemical Behavior
30.7.5.1 Flammability
30.7.5.2 Chemical Resistance
30.7.6 Other Properties
30.7.7 Dye Affinity
30.8 Market and Trade Names
30.9 Processing Properties and Areas of Application
References
31: Polyamide
31.1 Definition
31.2 History
31.2.1 Polyamide 6.6 and Polyamide 6
31.2.2 Development of Further Polyamide Types
31.3 Chemical Constitution and Raw Materials
31.3.1 Formation of Polyamides
31.3.2 Polyamides from Diamines and Dicarboxylic Acids
31.3.2.1 Polyamide 6.6
31.3.2.2 Polyamide 4.6
31.3.2.3 Polyamide 6.10
31.3.2.4 Other
31.3.3 Polyamides from ω-Aminocarboxylic Acids
31.3.4 Polyamides from Lactams
31.3.4.1 Polyamide 7
31.3.4.2 Polyamide 12
31.3.4.3 Melting Temperatures of Polyamides from Lactams
31.3.5 Copolyamide
31.3.5.1 PACM-12 (Qiana)
31.3.5.2 Other Copolyamides
31.4 Process for the Preparation of Polyamides
31.4.1 Polycondensation of Diamines with Dicarboxylic Acids and Polycondensation of Aminocarboxylic Acids, Respectively
31.4.2 Polymerization of Lactams
31.4.2.1 Single-Stage Process in the VK Tube
31.4.2.2 Two-Stage Process with VK Tube
31.4.2.3 Discontinuous in Autoclave
31.4.2.4 Continuous with Tube
31.4.2.5 Other Types of Polymerization
31.5 Process for the Production of Polyamide Fibers
31.5.1 Granulate Drying
31.5.2 Melt Spinning
31.5.3 Drawing
31.5.4 Production of Yarns from PA 6 and PA 6.6
31.5.4.1 Textile Filament Yarns
31.5.4.2 Technical Filament Yarns
31.5.5 BCF Yarn (Bulk Continuous Filament)
31.5.6 Staple Fibers
31.5.7 Spun Dyed Fibers
31.5.8 Microfibers
31.5.9 Profile and Hollow Fibers
31.5.10 Differential Dyeing Types
31.5.11 Antistatic Polyamide Fibers
31.5.12 Flame Retardant Fibers
31.5.13 Light Stabilized Fibers
31.5.14 Heat Stabilized Fibers
31.6 Features
31.6.1 Chemical Proof Reactions
31.6.2 Physical and Textile Properties
31.6.3 Thermal Properties
31.6.4 Chemical Behavior
31.6.5 Dye Affinity
31.6.6 Other Properties
31.7 Yarn Types
31.8 Market and Manufacturers
31.9 Processing Properties and Areas of Application
References
32: Aramid
32.1 History
32.2 Raw Materials, Formation of the Polymer
32.3 Production
32.3.1 Air Gap Wet Spinning Process
32.3.2 Dry Spinning
32.3.3 After-treatment
32.4 Properties
32.5 Products and Applications
32.6 Market
References
33: Polyolefins
33.1 Polyethylene (PE)
33.1.1 History
33.1.2 Structure
33.1.3 Production
33.1.3.1 Gel Spinning
33.1.3.2 Solid State Extrusion Process
33.1.4 Properties
33.1.5 Areas of Application
33.1.6 Market
33.2 Polypropylene (PP)
33.2.1 History
33.2.2 Production of the Polymer, Chemical Structure
33.2.2.1 Monomer
33.2.2.2 Tacticity
33.2.2.3 Polymerization with Ziegler-Natta and Metallocene Catalysts
33.2.2.4 Polymerization Processes
33.2.2.5 Suspension Polymerization
33.2.2.6 Mass and Gas Phase Polymerization
33.2.3 Molecular Weight, Crystal Structure and Morphology
33.2.3.1 Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution
33.2.3.2 Crystal Structure and Morphology
33.2.4 Production Method
33.2.4.1 Filament Yarns
33.2.4.2 BCF Yarns (Bulk Continuous Filament)
33.2.4.3 Monofilaments
33.2.4.4 Staple Fibers
33.2.4.5 Nonwoven Production
33.2.4.6 Split Film
33.2.5 Properties
33.2.5.1 Technological Values
33.2.5.2 Chemical Behavior
33.2.6 Modification of PP Fibers
33.2.6.1 Dyeing Behavior
33.2.6.2 Behavior Towards Environmental Influences
33.2.6.3 Modification of PP Fibers with Regard to Their Mechanical Behavior
33.2.7 Applications
33.2.7.1 House and Home Textiles and Clothing
33.2.7.2 Hygiene and Medicine
33.2.7.3 Technical Textiles
33.2.8 Market
33.2.9 Recycling and Environmental Aspects
33.3 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
33.3.1 History
33.3.2 Production
33.3.3 Areas of Application
33.3.4 Market and Trade Names
33.4 Polyvinyl Dichloride (PVDC)
33.5 Polyvinyl Difluoride (PVDF)
33.6 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
33.7 Polyacrylic (PAN)
33.8 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)
References
34: Polyacrylonitrile
34.1 Definition
34.2 Inventors, Development
34.3 Raw Material, Formation of the Polymer
34.3.1 Synthesis of Acrylonitrile
34.3.2 Polymerization
34.3.2.1 Emulsion Polymerization
34.3.2.2 Suspension or Dispersion Polymerization
34.3.2.3 Solution Polymerization
34.3.3 Copolymerization
34.4 Production Method
34.4.1 Spinning Solution
34.4.2 Spinning Process
34.4.2.1 Dry Spinning
34.4.2.2 Wet Spinning
34.4.2.3 Gel Spinning
34.4.2.4 Melt Spinning
34.5 After-treatment
34.5.1 Drawing
34.5.2 Washing
34.5.3 Finishing
34.5.4 Drying
34.5.5 Ripple
34.5.6 Converting
34.5.7 Dyeing
34.5.8 Plant concepts
34.6 Recovery of the Solvent
34.7 Special Fiber Types
34.7.1 Modacrylic Fibers
34.7.2 Bicomponent Fibers
34.7.3 Absorbant Fibers
34.7.4 Asbestos Replacement
34.7.5 Other Special Types
34.7.6 Low Pilling Types
34.8 Properties
34.8.1 Fiber Types
34.8.2 Physical properties
34.8.3 Thermal Properties
34.8.4 Microscopic Image
34.9 Applications and Fields of Use
34.9.1 Modacrylic Staple Fibers (MAC)
34.10 Market and Trade Names
References
35: Polylactic Acid
35.1 Definitions
35.2 Inventors, History of Development
35.3 Raw Materials and Synthesis
35.3.1 Polycondensation
35.3.2 Ring Opening Polymerization
35.4 Chemical Composition
35.5 Production Method
35.6 Properties
35.6.1 Polymer
35.6.2 Physical and Chemical Properties
35.6.3 Environmental Compatibility
35.7 Areas of Application
35.8 Market and Trade Names
References
36: Elastane
36.1 History
36.2 Starting Materials, Formation of the Polymer
36.2.1 Polymer Formation
36.2.2 Polymer Formation in 2 Steps
36.2.3 Internal Structure of Elastomers
36.3 Production
36.3.1 Dry Spinning
36.3.2 Wet Spinning
36.3.3 Reactive Spinning Process
36.3.4 Melt Spinning
36.4 Features
36.5 Products and Applications
36.6 Market
References
37: High-performance Fibers
37.1 Definition
37.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene Fibers (PTFE)
37.2.1 Production Method
37.3 Polyimide Fibers (PI)
37.4 Polyetherketone Fibers (PEK, PEEK)
37.4.1 History
37.4.2 Structure
37.4.3 Production
37.4.4 Features
37.4.5 Applications and Manufacturers
37.5 Polysulfone Fibers (PSU, PES)
37.6 Polyphenylene Sulfide Fibers (PPS)
37.7 Melamine Resin Fibers (MF)
37.8 Novoloid Fibers
37.9 Polyazole Fibers (PBO)
37.10 Polybenzimidazole Fibers (PBI)
37.11 Polyoxadiazole Fibers (POD)
37.12 Liquid Crystal Polymers (LCP)
37.13 Properties
37.14 Manufacturers
References
38: Carbon Fibers
38.1 Development and History
38.2 Raw Materials
38.3 Fiber and Yarn Production
38.3.1 Base PAN
38.3.2 Base Pitch
38.3.3 Other Precursors
38.3.3.1 Polyolefins
38.3.3.2 Cellulose
38.3.3.3 Lignin
38.3.3.4 Other Materials
38.4 Inner Structure
38.5 Features
38.6 Further Processing
38.7 Areas of Application
38.8 Market and Manufacturers
References
39: Carbon Nanotubes and Graphene
39.1 Definition and Types
39.2 History
39.3 Structure
39.4 Production
39.4.1 Arc Process
39.4.2 Laser Ablation Process
39.4.3 Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) Process
39.5 Properties
39.6 Functionalization
39.7 Production of Yarns from Carbon Nanotubes
39.8 Production of Composite Materials with Nanotubes
39.9 Areas of Application
39.10 Health Effects
39.11 Market and Manufacturers
39.12 Graphene
References
40: Optical Fibers
40.1 History
40.2 Principle
40.3 Manufacture of Optical Fibers
40.4 Types of Polymer Optical Fibers
40.4.1 Multi-core Fibers
40.4.2 Monomode Fibers
40.4.3 Microstructured Fibers
40.4.4 Lateral Light Emitting Fibers
40.5 Production of Polymer Optical Fibers
40.5.1 Discontinuous Processes
40.5.2 Continuous Processes
40.6 Properties
40.7 Products and Applications
40.8 Market
References
Part V: Cellulosic Chemical Fibers: Production and Properties
41: Cellulosic Man-Made Fibers
41.1 Basics
41.1.1 History
41.1.2 Raw Materials, Pulp Production
41.2 Regenerated Fibers
41.2.1 Viscose Process
41.2.1.1 Alkalization
41.2.1.2 Xanthogenation
41.2.1.3 Spinning of Viscose into Fibers
41.2.1.4 Degree of Polymerization and Chemical Consumption
41.2.1.5 Ancillary Facilities
41.2.1.6 Tape Formation and Drawing
41.2.1.7 After-Treatment of the Filaments
41.2.1.8 Viscose Fiber Types
41.2.1.8.1 High Wet Strength Viscose Staple Fibers
41.2.1.8.2 Modal
41.2.1.8.3 Polynosic Fibers
41.2.1.8.4 Technical Filament Yarns
41.2.1.8.5 Highly Crimped Viscose Staple Fibers
41.2.1.8.6 Hollow Fibers
41.2.1.8.7 Flame Retardant Fibers
41.2.1.8.8 Water Absorbent Fibers
41.2.1.9 Chemical Structure, Fine Structure
41.2.1.10 Properties
41.2.1.11 Processing and Finishing
41.2.1.12 Carbamate Process
41.2.2 Modified Viscose Fibers
41.2.3 Cupro Process (Cuoxam Process)
41.3 Lyocell
41.3.1 Principle
41.3.2 Solvent
41.3.3 NMMO Process
41.3.4 Preparation of a Homogeneous Solution of Pulp, NMMO and Water
41.3.5 Fiber Production
41.3.6 Possibilities for Modifying the Procedure
41.3.7 SeaCell
41.3.8 Structure and Fine Structure of Lyocell Fibers
41.3.9 Properties
41.3.10 Processing
41.3.11 Dyeing, Finishing
41.3.12 Trade Names, Production, Areas of Application
41.3.13 Areas of Application
41.3.14 Environmental Aspects
41.3.15 Comparison of Lyocell and Viscose Processes
41.4 Other Direct Solution Methods
41.4.1 Biocelsol Process
41.4.2 Other
41.5 Production
41.5.1 Manufacturers
41.5.2 Areas of Application
41.5.3 Cost Trends
41.6 Derivative Fibers
41.6.1 Acetate Fibers
41.6.1.1 History
41.6.1.2 Chemical Basics
41.6.1.3 Manufacture of Raw Materials
41.6.1.4 Fiber Production
41.6.1.5 Properties and Areas of Application
41.6.1.6 Manufacturers and Market
41.6.2 Nitrocellulose
41.7 Nanocellulose
References
Part VI: Biopolymers
42: Biopolymers
42.1 Basics
42.2 Protein Fibers
42.2.1 Casein and Milk Fibers
42.2.2 Soy Fibers
42.2.3 Corn Fiber
42.2.4 Peanut Fiber
42.2.5 Collagen Fibers
42.2.6 Chitin Fibers
42.2.7 Chitosan Fibers
42.2.8 Spider Silk
42.2.9 Fish Protein
42.2.10 Feathers
42.3 Polysaccharide Fibers
42.3.1 Alginate
42.3.2 Starch Fibers
42.3.3 Bamboo
42.4 Other Biopolymers
42.4.1 Rubber Threads
42.4.2 Polyvinyl Alcohol Fibers (PVA)
42.4.3 Polyhydroxyalkanoate Fibers (PHA, PHB)
42.4.4 Polyglycolic Acid Fibers (PGA)
42.4.5 Polycaprolactone Fibers (PCL)
42.4.6 Other Polymers
42.5 Interim Summary
42.6 BioPET and BioPA Fibers
42.7 Degradability
42.8 Market and Manufacturers
References
Part VII: Inorganic Fibers
43: Glass Fibers
43.1 Development and History
43.2 Raw Materials
43.3 Chemical Composition and Structure
43.4 Glass Production
43.4.1 Unit Melter
43.4.2 Electric Ovens
43.4.3 Intermediates
43.5 Fiber and Yarn Production
43.5.1 Nozzle Drawing Method for Filaments
43.5.2 Drum Drawing Process for Staple Fibers
43.5.3 Glass Wool
43.6 Fiber Optic Types
43.7 Properties
43.8 Further Processing
43.9 Products
43.10 Market and Manufacturers
References
44: Basalt Fibers
44.1 Basalt Occurrence
44.2 Chemical Composition and Structure
44.3 Fiber and Yarn Production
44.4 Fiber Types
44.5 Properties
44.6 Further Processing
44.7 Products
44.8 Market and Manufacturers
References
45: Ceramic Fibers
45.1 Development and History
45.2 Raw Materials and Structure
45.2.1 Oxide Ceramics
45.2.2 Non-oxide Ceramics
45.3 Fiber and Yarn Production
45.3.1 Melt Spinning of Staple Fibers
45.3.2 Melt Spinning of Filaments
45.3.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition
45.3.4 Thermal Conversion by Pyrolysis of Precursor-Impregnated Fibers
45.3.5 Sol-Gel Process
45.3.6 Other Processes
45.4 Properties
45.5 Further Processing
45.6 Products
45.7 Market and Manufacturers
References
Part VIII: Metal Fibers
46: Metal Fibers
46.1 Basics
46.2 Development and History
46.3 Metal Extraction
46.3.1 Occurrence and Extraction of Metals
46.3.2 Thermal Annealing Process
46.3.3 Material Numbers According to the German Standard DIN 17007
46.4 Metal Fiber Types
46.4.1 Pure Metals
46.4.2 Alloys
46.4.3 Semi-metals
46.4.4 Metallized Fibers
46.5 Production
46.5.1 Mechanical Manufacturing Process
46.5.2 Thermal Manufacturing Processes
46.5.3 Special Forms
46.5.4 Metal Alloys with Shape Memory Effect
46.6 Processing of Metal Fibers
46.6.1 Yarn Production
46.6.2 Fabric
46.6.3 Other Sheet Materials of Metal Fibers
46.6.4 Composite Material
46.7 Properties
46.8 Applications
46.9 Market and Manufacturers
References
Part IX: Test Methods
47: Test Methods
47.1 Determination of the Fiber Content
47.1.1 Microscope
47.1.2 Density Method
47.1.3 Chemical Determination
47.1.4 Dyeing Method
47.1.5 Thermal Methods
47.1.6 Chromatographic Methods
47.2 Mechanical Properties
47.2.1 Basics
47.2.2 Strength, Elongation, Modulus of Elasticity
47.2.3 Loop Strength
47.2.4 Mechanical Utility Value
47.2.5 Optical Methods for Determining the Internal Structure
47.2.5.1 Birefringence
47.2.5.2 Wide Angle X-Ray Diffraction (WAXD)
47.2.5.3 SAXS
47.2.5.4 FTIR
47.2.5.5 Raman Spectroscopy
47.3 Geometric Properties
47.3.1 Fiber Fineness
47.3.2 Fiber Length
47.3.3 Fiber Crimp
47.4 Moisture and Water Absorption
47.4.1 Moisture Absorption
47.4.2 Water Absorption and Water Retention Capacity
47.4.3 Wettability
47.4.4 Water Retention Capacity
47.5 Standards
References
Part X: Properties of Natural and Chemical Fibers
48: Properties
48.1 Fineness
48.2 Strength and Modulus of Elasticity
48.3 Degree of Polymerization and Length of the Polymers
48.4 Composition
48.5 Density
48.6 Flammability and Use Temperature
48.7 Resistance to Light and Weather
48.8 Resistance to Acids and Alkalis
48.9 Resistance to Microorganisms
48.10 General Overview
References
Part XI: Producers and Trade Names
49: Producers and Trade Names
49.1 Producers
49.2 Trade names
Part XII: Outlook and Trends
50: Outlook and Trends
50.1 Natural Fibers
50.1.1 Cotton
50.1.2 Bast and Hard Fibers
50.1.3 Wool
50.1.4 Other Natural Fibers
50.2 Man-Made Fibers
50.2.1 Synthetic Fibers
50.2.2 Cellulosic Fibers
50.3 Inorganic and Carbon Fibers
50.4 The World in 2050
References
Index