Fake Degrees and Fraudulent Credentials in Higher Education

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Editors
Chapter 1: Fake Degrees and Credential Fraud, Contract Cheating, and Paper Mills: Overview and Historical Perspectives
Introduction
A Brief History of Fake and Fraudulent Credentials
Defining Key Terms
Accreditation
Contract Cheating
Credentialism
Degree/Diploma
Degree Mill/Diploma Mill
Fake Degree
Fraudulent Degree
Fake University
Paper Mill
Types of Fake and Fraudulent Products and Services
The Connection Between the Fake Degree and Contract Cheating Industries
Blacklists of Fake Schools: An Exercise in Futility
Blackmail, Extortion, and Links to Organized Crime
Conclusions
An Updated (and Still Incomplete) Valuation of the Academic Fraud Industry
Limitations and Recommendations
References
Chapter 2: Admissions Fraud in Canadian Higher Education
Introduction
Literature Review
Method
Survey: Design, Demographics, and Distribution
Media Review
Comparative Survey Analysis
Results
Survey: Process, Practice, and Technology
Survey: Emerging Themes in Admissions Fraud
Theme 1: Confidence Level
Theme 2: Digitalization
Theme 3: Equity of Admissions Process
Theme 4: Frequency and Causality of Fake Credentials
Theme 5: Propensity for Change
Theme 6: Security
Theme 7: Workload Issues
Media Review: Canadian Response to Varsity Blues
Trend 1: “Not in Canada” Mentality
Trend 2: Socio-Economic Inequalities in the Admissions Process
Trend 3: Remaining Competitive in a Global Market
Trend 4: Manufacturing a ‘Fake’ Disability
Trend 5: Unregulated Education Consulting Industry
Comparative Survey Analysis: Glendinning et al. (2019)
Category 1: Regulation of Corruption in Higher Education
Category 2: Admission and Recruitment
Category 3: Student Assessment
Category 4: Credentials and Qualification
Limitations
Discussion
Recommendations and Conclusions
Recommendations for Administrative and Professional Practices in Canadian Higher Education
Recommendations for Researchers
Recommendations for Policy Reform
References
Chapter 3: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow: A Tour of Axact, the “World’s Largest Diploma Mill”
Introduction
Pakistan’s History, Laws, Prisons, and Justice
Pakistan and the United States of America
Axact: A Criminal Enterprise
Axact’s History and Finances
Lawsuits
Protect the Castle at All Costs!
Delusions of Grandeur
How Did Axact Continue to Operate for 24 Years?
Let’s Take a Tour of Your ‘University’
Processing Trail of a ‘New’ University
Initiation
Domain Purchase and Hosting
Advertising
Sales
Upsell
Two Separate Paths: An FBI Sting and the Arrest of Umair Hamid
Crossing Paths: Suffield University and Manhattan Bay University
Back to Axact in May 2015
Axact Is ‘Closed’
Sheikh and Axact React
Circumstances of Karachi
After 2015: Still Selling Diplomas and Transcripts!
Publicly Blemished: New Name(s) for Axact
The Worst of the Worst: Extortion and Blackmail!
Axact Extortion Travel Teams
TCurve Amnesty Period for Employees
Devaluing Degrees: Why Should We Be Concerned?
How Do I Recognize a Fake School?
Examples of Fake Schools
The Value of the Written Word
Trends in Axact’s New Fake Universities
Personal Message to Shoaib Ahmed Sheikh
Tomorrow and Axact
Appendix
References
Chapter 4: Bridging to Tomorrow: A Historical and Technological Review of Credential Exchange in Higher Education Within Canada
Introduction
Relevancy of Work
Research Approach
Report Definitions
Context for Document Issuing
Overview
International Context
Canadian Context
Adoption Challenges of Digitized Documents and Trusted Electronic Networks
Overview
Growth in Degree/Diploma Mills
Document Issuing Providers
Considering New Technology Options
Establishing Trust in Digitized Academic Documents
Questions to Consider
Degree Mill Challenges
Best Practice Advice
Final Thoughts
References
Chapter 5: Fair Play, Fraud, or Fixed? Athletic Credentials in U.S. Higher Education
Exceptional Admission for Athletes
Methods
Findings
Invest
Market
Authenticate
Study Limitations
Conclusion
Appendix 1 Study Participant Background Characteristics
References
Chapter 6: Corruption in Admissions, Recruitment, Qualifications and Credentials: From Research into Quality Assurance
Introduction
Literature Review
Literature Sources on Corruption in Admission and Recruitment
Literature Sources on Corruption in Qualifications and Credentials
Findings from Our Research
Discussion
Recommendations and Conclusions
References
Chapter 7: Avoiding Favouritism in the Recruitment Practice of Turkish Higher Education Institutions
Introduction
Governance of Turkish Higher Education
Roles and Responsibilities in Turkish Academia
Recruitment in Turkish Higher Education
The Recruitment of Teaching Staff and Research Assistants
The Recruitment of Assistant Professors
The Recruitment of Associate Professors
The Recruitment of Full Professors
Favouritism in Turkish Higher Education
Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: None of the Above: Integrity Concerns of Standardized English Proficiency Tests
Introduction
Unethical Behaviour
Unethical Test-Takers
Unethical Test-Makers
Challenges to Equity in High-Stakes Language Testing
Best Practices for Equitable Language Assessment
Critical Review of Current Challenges to Language Assessment
Challenges of Language Testing Pre-COVID-19
Financial Burden
Feedback Issues
Interpretation of Results
Challenges Imposed at the Onset and after Covid-19
Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Examining the Problem of Fraudulent English Test Scores: What Can Canadian Higher Education Institutions Learn?
Introduction
English Proficiency Tests, Test Security Measures, and Fraud
Test Security Measures
The Move to Remote Testing
Types of Cheating and Fraud
Test Preparation Practices
Reports of Fraudulent Practices: Case Studies from the Media and Lessons Learned
TOIEC Test Scandal in the United Kingdom
Test Fraud Cases in the United States
One Canadian College’s Concerns
Test Fraud Scandals: What Can Institutions Learn?
The Use and Impact of English Test Scores
Predictive Validity of English Proficiency Tests
Language Assessment Literacy for Test Users
Setting Cut Scores
Language Test Scores: Effect on Students
Future Considerations: Moving Beyond English Test Scores
Reconsidering Admission Criteria
Curricular Considerations: Instituting a Post-Entry Language Assessment (PELA)
Connecting PELAs to Academic Literacies
Offering Acculturation Support
Becoming Better Informed Through Partnerships and Further Research
Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: There is No Culture? A Framework for Addressing Admissions Fraud
Introduction
A Culture of Admissions Fraud: A Multi-Level Framework
Micro
Metaxy
Meso
Macro
Acro
Example Case: The ACT GAC Cheating Scandal
Summary
Analysis Using the Framework: What Are the Entities Involved?
Micro
Metaxy
Meso
Macro
Acro
What Power Does Each Entity Have Over Admissions Fraud, and How Do These Powers Relate to One Another?
Micro
Metaxy
Meso
Macro
Acro
Conclusions and Limitations
References
Chapter 11: Security Risks, Fake Degrees, and Other Fraud: A Topic Modelling Approach
Introduction
Literature Review
Methods
Results
Observations: Data Scraping
Pre-processing the Data
List of Topics
Keyword Co-occurrences
IP Address Experimentation
Summary of Identified Risks
Limitations
Discussion
Recommendations and Conclusions
Recommendations for Security Professionals in Higher Education
Recommendations for Senior Leaders in Higher Education
Recommendations for Researchers
References
Chapter 12: Are You for Real? Lessons for the Academy About Professors with Fake or Fraudulent Degrees
Introduction
The Accidental and Anecdotal Impetus for this Chapter
Overview of the Chapter
Background
Credential Fraud in the Professions
Credential Fraud in the Academy
Academic Malpractice
Key Issues
Issue #1: Threats to Institutional Reputation
Issue #2: Threat to Credentials Awarded by the Institution
Issue #3: The Impact on Students
Issue #4: Material Costs to the Institution
Recommendations
Recommendation #1: Verify Applicant Credentials
Recommendation #2: Develop or Update Internal Risk Assessment Plans to Include Fake or Fraudulent Credentials
Recommendation #3: Conduct an Internal Qualifications Audit
Recommendation #4: Develop or Update Institutional Codes of Conduct
Recommendation #5: Develop or Update an Internal Process to Investigate Allegations of Credential Fraud
Recommendation #6: Develop and Follow Internal Quality Assurance Processes for Courses, Programs, and Curricula
Recommendation #7: Develop or Update Crisis Communications Plans to Include Guidance on How to Respond to Fraud  and Misconduct
Conclusions
References
Chapter 13: Fake Degrees and Fraudulent Credentials in Higher Education: Conclusions and Future Directions
Introduction
Historical Perspectives and Terminology
Survey Data: Trend of Global Indifference
Criminal Enterprises and Security
Inequitable Gate-Keepers: Fraud in Standardized Language Proficiency Testing
Athletic Credentialism
The Role of the Institution
Hiring Practices and the Role of Human Resources
Technology
Significance, Limitations, and Future Directions
Limitations
References