Ethology and Behavioral Ecology of Sirenia

Introduction to the Series
Preface
Contents
1 What Can We Infer About the Behavior of Extinct Sirenians?
1.1 Habitat and Locomotion
1.2 Interactions with Other Animals
1.2.1 Parturition and Care of Young
1.2.2 Mating Systems
1.2.3 Agonistic Encounters
1.3 Feeding
1.3.1 Diet
1.3.2 Vibrissae
1.3.3 Rostral Deflection
1.3.4 Cropping Mechanism
1.3.5 Tusks
1.3.6 Intraoral Food Transport
1.3.7 Mastication
1.4 Sensory Perception
1.5 Concluding Remarks
References
2 Morphological and Sensory Innovations for an Aquatic Lifestyle
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Morphological Innovations for an Aquatic Life
2.2.1 Thermoregulation
2.2.2 Hydrostasis
2.2.3 Buoyancy
2.2.4 Swimming Behavior, Kinematics, and Performance
2.2.5 Feeding Innovations
2.3 Sensory Innovations for an Aquatic Life
2.3.1 Central Nervous System Characteristics
2.3.2 Peripheral Nervous System Characteristics—Structure and Function of Sensory Systems
2.3.3 Vision
2.3.4 Auditory System
2.3.5 Vocalizations
2.3.6 Gustation
2.3.7 Olfaction
2.4 Conclusions
References
3 Diving and Foraging Behaviors
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Diving
3.2.1 Anatomical Adaptations to Diving
3.2.2 Diving Physiology
3.2.3 Surfacing Behavior
3.2.4 Dive Duration
3.2.5 Dive Depths
3.2.6 Diving Behavior
3.3 Foraging
3.3.1 Methodology
3.3.2 Feeding Modes
3.3.3 Diet
3.3.4 Coprophagy
3.3.5 Ingestion of Non-food Items
3.3.6 Food Acquisition and Processing
3.3.7 Duration of Feeding
3.3.8 Impacts of Feeding on Vegetation
3.4 Conclusions
References
4 Social and Reproductive Behaviors
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Group Size and Dispersion
4.2.1 Group Size and Dispersion in Dugongs
4.2.2 Group Size and Dispersion in Manatees
4.3 Movements in Relation to Social Behavior
4.4 Mating Systems
4.4.1 Lek Mating in Dugongs
4.4.2 Mating Herds: Scramble Promiscuity
4.5 Mother-Young Behavior
4.5.1 Birthing
4.5.2 Suckling and Synchronous Breathing
4.6 Communication
4.6.1 Tactile and Chemosensory Communication
4.6.2 Vocal Communication: Mechanisms and Basic Acoustic Traits
4.6.3 Vocal Communication: Contexts and Variability
4.7 Other Social Behavior
4.8 Natal Philopatry, Dispersal, Matrilines, and Related Topics
4.8.1 Behavioral Observations from Florida Manatees in the Field
4.8.2 Support from Genetic Studies
4.8.3 Role of Tradition and Fission–Fusion Dynamics
4.9 Conclusions and Future Directions
References
5 Movement Behavior of Manatees and Dugongs: I. Environmental Challenges Drive Diversity in Migratory Patterns and Other Large-Scale Movements
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Methods for Studying Large-Scale Movement Behavior of Sirenians
5.3 Florida Manatee: Long-Distance Migrant on the Thermal Fringe of Sirenian Ranges
5.3.1 Regional Variation in Seasonal Movement Patterns in the Southeastern United States
5.3.2 Migratory Behavior and the Role of Temperature
5.3.3 Long-Distance Movements and the Role of Forage
5.3.4 Unusual Extralimital Movements by Florida Manatees
5.4 Antillean Manatee: Diversity of Aquatic Habitats Begets Large Variation in Movement Behavior
5.4.1 Seasonal Movement Patterns in Coastal Populations of the Antillean Manatee
5.4.2 Seasonal Movement Patterns in Riverine Populations of the Antillean Manatee
5.4.3 Seasonal Movement Patterns of the Antillean Manatee in Coastal-Riverine Systems
5.5 Amazonian Manatee: From Bottlenecks to Treetops in a Flood-pulse System
5.5.1 Seasonal Migrations and Changing Water Levels
5.5.2 Migratory Timing is Critical to Traverse Shallow Bottlenecks
5.6 African Manatee: Enigmatic Recluse in a Vast Continent
5.6.1 Year-Round Residency in Coastal Populations of the African Manatee
5.6.2 Seasonal Movement Patterns in Inland Populations of the African Manatee
5.6.3 Seasonal Movement Patterns of African Manatees in Coastal-Riverine Systems
5.7 Dugong: Seagrass Community Specialist in Coastal Marine Waters
5.7.1 Do Dugongs Migrate?
5.7.2 Movement Response of Dugongs to Periodic Declines in Forage
5.7.3 Individual Large-Scale Movements in Dugongs
5.8 Long-Term Range Fidelity
5.8.1 Interannual Fidelity to Seasonal Ranges and Refugia
5.8.2 Natal Philopatry
5.9 Conclusions: Commonalities and Contrasts Across Sirenian Species
5.10 Future Research Directions
References
6 Movement Behavior of Manatees and Dugongs: II. Small-Scale Movements Reflect Adaptations to Dynamic Aquatic Environments
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Actors and Their Needs
6.3 Methods for Studying Sirenian Movement Behavior at Small Spatio-Temporal Scales
6.3.1 Radio-Tracking in the Field and via Satellite
6.3.2 Acoustic Tracking
6.3.3 Depth and Environmental Loggers
6.3.4 Instrumentation to Record 3-Dimensional Movements, Sounds, and Video
6.4 Space Use, Home Range, and Within-Season Movements
6.4.1 Florida Manatees
6.4.2 Antillean Manatees
6.4.3 Amazonian Manatees
6.4.4 African Manatees: Coastal Lagoon Systems
6.4.5 Dugongs
6.5 Diel Movement Patterns
6.5.1 Florida Manatees
6.5.2 Antillean, Amazonian, and African Manatees
6.5.3 Dugongs
6.6 Movements in Relation to Tidal Cycles
6.6.1 West Indian and African Manatees
6.6.2 Dugongs
6.7 Movements to Freshwater Sources by Manatees
6.8 Travel Corridors
6.8.1 West Indian and Amazonian Manatees
6.8.2 Dugongs
6.9 Flight Behavior from Threats
6.9.1 Manatees (All Species)
6.9.2 Dugongs
6.10 Movement Behavior Related to Reproduction
6.10.1 Manatees (All Species)
6.10.2 Dugongs
6.11 Concluding Remarks
References
7 Historical and Current Interactions with Humans
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sirenian Morphology, Maternal and Feeding Behaviors Are Reflected in Human Mythology and Culture
7.3 Sirenian Morphology, Accessibility and Behavioral Predictability Make Them Attractive to Eat and Easy to Hunt
7.4 Sirenian Behavior and Habitat Use Increase the Risk of Interactions with Fishing Operations
7.5 Sirenian Behavior and the Conservation Challenges of Sirenian Tourism
7.6 Sirenian Morphology, Behavior and Anatomy Influence Their Interactions with Vessels
7.7 Behavioral Responses to the Effects of Human Activities and Degradation of Sirenian Habitats
7.7.1 Feeding
7.7.2 Calving and Nursing Behaviors
7.7.3 Behavioral Thermoregulation Increases the Links Between Florida Manatees and People
7.7.4 Movements
7.8 Conclusion
References
8 How Might Climate Change Affect the Ethology and Behavioral Ecology of Dugongs and Manatees?
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Changes to the Physical Parameters of Sirenian Habitats
8.2.1 Temperature Increases
8.2.2 Sea Level Rise
8.2.3 Changes in Water Chemistry and Quality
8.2.4 Increase in Intensity and Frequency of Extreme Weather Events
8.2.5 Changes in Rainfall Patterns
8.3 Changes to the Plant Communities on which Sirenians Depend
8.3.1 Seagrass Meadows
8.3.2 Mangrove Communities
8.3.3 Tidal Marshes and Estuarine Lagoons
8.3.4 Freshwater Wetlands
8.4 Co-stressors
8.4.1 Harmful Algal Blooms
8.4.2 Infrastructure
8.4.3 Land Clearing
8.4.4 Human Food Insecurity
8.5 Changes to Sirenian Ethology and Behavioral Ecology
8.5.1 Diving
8.5.2 Foraging
8.5.3 Social and Reproductive Behaviors
8.5.4 Movements and Habitat Use
8.5.5 Social Learning
8.6 Conclusions
References
Index