Essential Measurements in Pediatric Musculoskeletal Imaging

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
In-Utero
Introduction: Prenatal Ultrasound
Development
Imaging Workup When a Skeletal Dysplasia Is Suspected in Utero (Prenatal Ultrasound)
Assessment of Characteristics of Long Bones
Bone Length
Bone Shape
Echogenicity
Evaluation of Hands and Feet
Evaluation of Fetal Movements
Evaluation of the Fetal Head
Abdominal Circumference
Evaluation of the Fetal Thorax
Determination of Lethality
Imaging Workup When a Skeletal Dysplasia Is Suspected Postnatally (Radiographs)
Specific Considerations
References
Skull
Introduction
Sutures
Suture Closure (Table 1)
Fontanelles
Closure Timeline of the Fontanelles (Table 2)
Skull Layers
Craniosynostosis
Non-syndromic Craniosynostosis (Table 3)
Scaphocephaly (or Dolichocephaly)
Trigonocephaly
Plagiocephaly
Brachycephaly
Oxycephaly (Acrocephaly)
Syndromic Craniosynostosis
Craniocervical Junction
Skull Base Craniometry
Odontoid Process
Basilar Invagination (Congenital): Atlantoaxial Impaction
Basilar Impression (Acquired)
Chiari I (Arnold-Chiari) Malformation
References
Spine
Spine
Cervical Spine
Basilar Invagination/Impression
Atlanto-Occipital Junction
Atlanto-Dens Interval (ADI)
Posterior Atlanto-Dens Relationship
Posterior Cervical Line/Posterior Line of Swischuk
Prevertebral Soft Tissue Assessment
Spinal Canal Size
Vertebral Body Height
Thoracolumbar Spine
Thoracic Kyphosis
Modified Cobb Angle
Sagittal Balance
C7 Plumb Line
Scoliosis
Infantile Idiopathic Scoliosis
Juvenile Idiopathic Scoliosis
Cobb Angle
Coronal Balance
Lumbar Spinal Canal Dimensions
References
Shoulder
Introduction
Proximal Humerus and Glenohumeral Joint
Humeral Metaphyseal Stripe
Glenoid Version
Acromioclavicular Joint and Coracoclavicular Ligament
References
Elbow
Introduction
Technique and Quality Assessment
Ossification Centers
The Anterior Humeral Line (AHL)
The Anterior Coronoid Line
Shaft Condylar Angle (SCA)
Lateral Capitellohumeral Angle (LCHA)
The Radiocapitellar Line
Humeral and Ulnar Shaft Lines
The Carrying Angle
Baumann’s Angle
Medial Epicondyle-Epiphyseal (MEE) Angle
References
Wrist
Introduction
Scapholunate and Capitolunate Angle Measurements
Ulnar Variance
Radial Height
Radial Inclination
Volar Tilt
Cartilage Thickness
Epiphyseal Overload
Juvenile Arthritis (JIA)
Skeletal Age
References
Hand
Introduction
Skeletal Development of the Hand
Carpal Bone Ossification
Determination of Skeletal Maturity
Carpal Angle
Carpal Height
Scapholunate Distance
Carpal Instability
Metacarpal Index
Metacarpal Sign
Brachydactyly
Joint Fluid
Tendon Pathology
Paediatric Trigger Thumb
Carpal Tunnel
References
Hip and Pelvis
Introduction
Developmental Dysplasia (DDH)
Hip Acetabular Angle
Acetabular Coverage of the Femoral Head
US Alpha-Beta Angle
Medial Joint Space (Teardrop Distance)
Shenton’s Line
Perkin’s Line
Lateral Center-Edge Angle (Wiberg)
Vertical-Center-Anterior Angle
Tönnis Angle
Pubofemoral Distance
Femoral Head-Neck-Shaft Angle
Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis (SCFE)
Klein’s Line
Southwick’s Method
Femoroacetabular Impingement (FAI)
Anterior Offset Distance
Alpha Angle
Acetabular Anteversion
Lines: Arcuate/Acetabular Roof-Teardrop
Pelvic Tilt
Pubic Symphyseal Width
References
Knee
Introduction
Tibiofemoral Joint
Varus–Valgus
Metadiaphyseal Angle
Tibial Torsion
Intercondylar Notch
ACL Angles
PCL Angles
ACL Grafts
Discoid Meniscus
Patellofemoral Joint
Trochlear Dysplasia/Patellar Maltracking
Trochlear Angle (Sulcus Angle)
Radiographs
Ultrasound
MRI
Lateral Trochlear Inclination
Trochlear Depth
Radiographs
US/CT/MRI
Trochlear Facet Ratio
Tibial Tuberosity to Trochlear Groove Distance (TT- TG)
Patellar Position Assessment
Vertical Position
Koshino and Sugimoto
Insall-Salvati
Horizontal Position
References
Ankle and Foot
Introduction
Ankle
Lateral Distal Tibial Angle
Anterior Distal Tibial Angle
Total Clear Space
Tibiofibular Overlap
Medial Clear Space
Talocrural Angle
Foot
Hindfoot
Midtalar Line
Midcalcaneal Line
Lateral Tibiocalcaneal Angle
Talocalcaneal Angle
Talo-Horizontal Angle
Calcaneal-Horizontal Angle
Meary Method
Djian Method
Saltzman and El-Khoury Distance
Lamm Angle
Bohler Angle
Gissane Angle
Midfoot
Ultrasound Measurements
Lateral Tarsal Joint Surface Angles
Lateral Talar-First Metatarsal or Meary Angle
Djian-Annonier Angle
Lateral Calcaneus-Fifth Metatarsal Angle
Lateral Calcaneus-First Metatarsal or Hibbs Angle
Forefoot
Metatarsal Index
Morton’s Method
Hardy and Clapham’s Method
Metatarsal Depth Angle
Metatarsus Adductus Angle
Modified Metatarsus Adductus Angle or Engel’s Method
Angle Between Calcaneus and Second Metatarsal
AP Talar-First Metatarsal Angle
AP Calcaneal-Fifth Metatarsal Angle
Hallux Valgus Angle
References
Body Composition
Introduction
DXA
MRI
References
EOS Imaging
Introduction
Spine and Pelvis
Pelvic Measurements
Pelvic Incidence (PI)
Sacral Slope (SS)
Pelvic Tilt (PT)
Pelvic Obliquity (PO)
Axial Rotation of the Pelvis (ARP)
Spine Measurements
Vertebral Numbering
Coronal Balance
C7-Central Sacral Line (CSL)
Cobb Angle
Lateral Flexion (Bending) Radiographs
In-Brace Measurements
Sagittal Balance
Sagittal Vertical Axis (SVA) and CAM Plumb Line
Spino-Sacral Angle (SSA)
T9 Tilt or T9 Sagittal Offset
Thoracic Kyphosis (TK) and Lumbar Lordosis (LL)
3D Images
Lower Limb Measurements
References