Environmental Chemistry

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Author
Chapter 1: Environmental Chemistry: An Essential Discipline in Coping with Challenges Facing Humankind
1.1. A Catastrophic Year for Earth and Humankind
1.2. Earth and the Earth System
1.3. Biogeochemical Cycles in the Earth System
1.3.1. Oxygen Cycle
1.3.2. Nitrogen Cycle
1.3.3. Sulfur Cycle
1.3.4. Phosphorus Cycle
1.4. Natural Capital of the Earth System
1.5. What is Environmental Chemistry?
1.5.1. Environmental Chemistry and the Spheres of the Earth System
1.6. Environmental Chemistry of Water and the Hydrosphere
1.7. Environmental Chemistry of Air and the Atmosphere
1.8. Environmental Chemistry of the Geosphere
1.8.1. Soil
1.9. Environmental Chemistry of the Anthrosphere
1.10. Environmental Chemistry of the Biosphere
1.11. Toxicological Chemistry and Biochemistry
1.12. As We Enter the Anthropocene
1.13. Special Challenges to Environmental Chemistry as Global Climate Change Becomes Reality
References
Further Reading
Chapter 2: The Hydrosphere and Water Chemistry
2.1. Water: An Essential Part of Earth’s Natural Capital
2.2. Sources and Uses of Water
2.2.1. The Groundwater Crisis
2.3. H2O: Simple Formula, Remarkable Molecule
2.4. Life in Water
2.5. Chemistry of Water
2.6. Gases in Water
2.6.1. Oxygen in Water
2.7. Water Acidity and Carbon Dioxide in Water
2.7.1. Carbon Dioxide in Water
2.8. Alkalinity
2.8.1. Contributors to Alkalinity at Different pH Values
2.8.2. Dissolved Inorganic Carbon and Alkalinity
2.8.3. Influence of Alkalinity on CO2 Solubility
2.9. Calcium and Other Metals in Water
2.9.1. Hydrated Metal Ions as Acids
2.9.2. Calcium in Water
2.9.3. Dissolved Carbon Dioxide and Calcium Carbonate Minerals
2.10. Complexation and Chelation
2.10.1. Occurrence and Importance of Chelating Agents in Water
2.11. Bonding and Structure of Metal Complexes
2.11.1. Selectivity and Specificity in Chelation
2.12. Calculations of Species Concentrations
2.13. Complexation by Deprotonated Ligands
2.14. Complexation by Protonated Ligands
2.15. Solubilization of Lead Ion from Solids by NTA
2.15.1. Reaction of NTA with Metal Carbonate
2.15.2. Effect of Calcium Ion on the Reaction of Chelating Agents with Slightly Soluble Salts
2.16. Polyphosphates And Phosphonates In Water
2.16.1. Polyphosphates
2.16.2. Hydrolysis of Polyphosphates
2.16.3. Complexation by Polyphosphates
2.16.4. Phosphonates
2.17. Complexation by Humic Substances
2.18. Complexation and Redox Processes
References
Further Readings
Chapter 3: Oxidation/Reduction in Aquatic Chemistry
3.1. The Significance of Oxidation/Reduction in Aquatic Chemistry
3.2. The Electron and Redox Reactions
3.3. Electron Activity and pE
3.4. The Nernst Equation
3.5. Reaction Tendency: Whole Reaction from Half-Reactions
3.6. The Nernst Equation and Chemical Equilibrium
3.7. The Relationship of pE to Free Energy
3.8. Reactions in Terms of One Electron-Mole
3.9. The Limits of pE in Water
3.10. pE Values in Natural Water Systems
3.11. pE–pH Diagrams
3.12. Humic Substances as Natural Reductants
3.13. Photochemical Processes in Oxidation/Reduction
3.14. Corrosion
References
Further Readings
Chapter 4: Phase Interactions in Aquatic Chemistry
4.1. Chemical Interactions Involving Solids, Gases, and Water
4.2. Importance and Formation of Sediments
4.2.1. Formation of Sediments
4.2.2. Organic and Carbonaceous Sedimentary Materials
4.3. Solubilities
4.3.1. Solubilities of Solids
4.3.2. Solubilities of Gases
4.4. Colloidal Particles in Water
4.4.1. Colloids in Water and Contaminant Transport by Colloids
4.4.2. Kinds of Colloidal Particles
4.4.3. Colloid Stability
4.5. The Colloidal Properties of Clays
4.6. Aggregation of Colloidal Particles
4.6.1. Flocculation of Colloids by Polyelectrolytes
4.6.2. Flocculation of Bacteria by Polymeric Materials
4.7. Surface Sorption by Solids
4.8. Solute Exchange with Bottom Sediments
4.8.1. Trace-Level Metals in Suspended Matter and Sediments
4.8.2. Phosphorus Exchange with Bottom Sediments
4.8.3. Organic Compounds on Sediments and Suspended Matter
4.8.4. Bioavailability of Sediment Contaminants
4.9. Interstitial Water
4.10. Phase Interactions in Chemical Fate and Transport
4.10.1. Rivers
4.10.2. Lakes and Reservoirs
4.10.3. Exchange with the Atmosphere
4.10.4. Exchange with Sediments
References
Further Readings
Chapter 5: Aquatic Microbial Biochemistry
5.1. Aquatic Biochemical Processes
5.1.1. Microorganisms at Interfaces
5.2. Algae
5.3. Fungi
5.4. Protozoa
5.5. Bacteria
5.5.1. Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Bacteria
5.5.2. Oxic and Anoxic Bacteria
5.6. The Prokaryotic Bacterial Cell
5.7. Kinetics of Bacterial Growth
5.8. Bacterial Metabolism
5.8.1. Factors Affecting Bacterial Metabolism
5.8.2. Microbial Oxidation and Reduction
5.9. Microbial Transformations of Carbon
5.9.1. Methane-Forming Bacteria
5.9.2. Bacterial Utilization of Hydrocarbons
5.9.3. Microbial Utilization of Carbon Monoxide
5.10. Biodegradation of Organic Matter
5.10.1. Oxidation
5.10.2. Microbial Oxidation of Hydrocarbons
5.10.3. Other Biochemical Processes in Biodegradation of Organics
5.11. Microbial Transformations of Nitrogen
5.11.1. Nitrogen Fixation
5.11.2. Nitrification
5.11.3. Nitrate Reduction
5.11.4. Denitrification
5.12. Microbial Transformations of Phosphorus and Sulfur
5.12.1. Phosphorus Compounds
5.12.2. Sulfur Compounds
5.12.3. Oxidation of H2S and Reduction of Sulfate by Bacteria
5.12.4. Microorganism-Mediated Degradation of Organic Sulfur Compounds
5.13. Microbial Transformations of Halogens and Organohalides
5.14. Microbial Transformations of Metals and Metalloids
5.14.1. Acid Mine Waters
5.14.2. Microbial Transitions of Selenium
5.14.3. Microbial Corrosion
References
Further Readings
Chapter 6: Water Pollutants and Water Pollution
6.1. Nature and Types of Water Pollutants
6.1.1. Markers of Water Pollution
6.2. Elemental Pollutants
6.3. Heavy Metals
6.3.1. Cadmium
6.3.2. Lead
6.3.3. Mercury
6.4. Metalloids
6.5. Organically Bound Metals and Metalloids
6.5.1. Organotin Compounds
6.6. Inorganic Species
6.6.1. Cyanide
6.6.2. Ammonia and Other Inorganic Pollutants
6.6.3. Asbestos in Water
6.7. Algal Nutrients and Eutrophication
6.8. Acidity, Alkalinity, and Salinity
6.9. Oxygen, Oxidants, and Reductants
6.10. Organic Pollutants
6.10.1. Bioaccumulation of Organic Pollutants
6.10.2. Sewage
6.10.3. Soaps, Detergents, and Detergent Builders
6.10.3.1. Soaps
6.10.3.2. Detergents
6.10.3.3. Microbial Toxins
6.11. Pesticides in Water
6.11.1. Natural Product Insecticides, Pyrethrins, and Pyrethroids
6.11.2. The Emergence of Neonicotinoid Insecticides
6.11.3. DDT and Organochlorine Insecticides
6.11.4. Organophosphate Insecticides
6.11.5. Carbamates
6.11.6. Fungicides
6.11.7. Herbicides
6.11.8. Bipyridylium Compounds
6.11.9. Herbicidal Heterocyclic Nitrogen Compounds
6.11.10. Chlorophenoxy Herbicides
6.11.11. Miscellaneous Herbicides
6.12. Organochlorine Compounds in Water
6.12.1. By-Products of Pesticide Manufacture
6.12.2. Polychlorinated Biphenyls
6.12.3. 1,2,3-Trichloropropane in Groundwater
6.12.4. Naturally Occurring Chlorinated and Brominated Compounds
6.13. Emerging Water Pollutants, Pharmaceuticals, and Household Wastes
6.13.1. Bactericides and Antibiotics
6.13.2. Estrogenic Substances in Wastewater Effluents
6.13.3. Biorefractory Organic Pollutants
6.14. Radionuclides in the Aquatic Environment
References
Further Readings
Chapter 7: World Water Crisis and Climate Change: Water Renovation and Recycling
7.1. The Most Important Body of Water—You
7.2. Water Treatment and Water Use
7.3. Municipal Water Treatment
7.3.1. Failures in Water Treatment
7.4. Treatment of Water for Industrial and Commercial Use
7.5. Wastewater Treatment
7.5.1. Industrial Wastewater Treatment
7.6. Advanced Water Treatment
7.7. Aeration of Water
7.8. Removal of Solids
7.8.1. Dissolved Air Flotation
7.8.2. Membrane Filtration Processes
7.9. Removal of Calcium and Other Metals
7.9.1. Removal of Iron and Manganese
7.9.2. Removal of Heavy Metals from Water
7.10. Removal of Biodegradable Organics from Water and Sewage Treatment
7.10.1. Biodegradable Organics Removal from Wastewater
7.10.2. Membrane Bioreactor
7.10.3. Sludge Handling and Disposal
7.10.4. Chemical Sludges
7.10.5. Additional Purification of Water from Secondary Wastewater Treatment
7.11. Removal of Dissolved Organics
7.11.1. Removal of Herbicides
7.12. Removal of Dissolved Inorganics
7.12.1. Ion Exchange
7.12.2. Reverse Osmosis
7.12.3. Phosphorus Removal
7.12.4. Nitrogen Removal
7.13. Water Disinfection
7.13.1. Chlorine Dioxide
7.13.2. Green Ozone for Water Disinfection
7.13.3. Ferrate and Percarbonate
7.13.4. Disinfection with Ultraviolet Radiation and Photocatalytic Processes
7.13.5. Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment
7.14. Natural Water Purification Processes
7.14.1. Industrial Wastewater Treatment by Soil
7.15. Green Water and Total Water Recycle
7.16. Water Conservation
7.17. Protecting Water Supplies from Attack
References
Further Readings
Chapter 8: The Atmosphere and Atmospheric Chemistry
8.1. The Atmosphere and Atmospheric Chemistry
8.1.1. Atmospheric Composition
8.1.2. Oxides of Nitrogen and Sulfur
8.1.3. Atmospheric Methane, Hydrocarbons, and Photochemical Smog
8.1.4. Particulate Matter
8.1.5. Primary and Secondary Pollutants
8.2. How the Atmosphere Got That Way and its Natural Capital
8.2.1. Chemical and Biochemical Processes in Evolution of the Atmosphere
8.2.2. Self-Purification of the Atmosphere
8.3. Physical Characteristics of the Atmosphere
8.3.1. Variation of Pressure and Density with Altitude
8.3.2. Stratification of the Atmosphere
8.4. Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere
8.4.1. The Earth’s Radiation Budget
8.5. Atmospheric Mass Transfer, Meteorology, and Weather
8.5.1. Atmospheric Water in Energy and Mass Transfer
8.5.2. Air Masses
8.5.3. Topographical Effects
8.5.4. Movement of Air Masses
8.5.5. Global Weather
8.5.6. Weather Fronts and Storms
8.6. Inversions and Air Pollution
8.7. Global Climate and Microclimate
8.7.1. Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide and Human Modifications of Climate
8.7.2. Microclimate
8.7.3. Effects of Urbanization on Microclimate
8.8. Chemical and Photochemical Reactions in the Atmosphere
8.8.1. Photochemical Processes
8.8.2. Ions and Radicals in the Atmosphere
8.8.3. Ions at Lower Altitudes in the Troposphere
8.8.4. Free Radicals
8.8.5. Hydroxyl and Hydroperoxyl Radicals in the Atmosphere
8.9. Acid–Base Reactions in the Atmosphere
8.10. Reactions of Atmospheric Oxygen
8.10.1. Tropospheric Ozone in the Unpolluted Atmosphere
8.11. Reactions of Atmospheric Nitrogen
8.12. Atmospheric Water
8.13. Influence of the Anthrosphere
8.14. Metals from Meteoroids in the Mesosphere
8.15. Chemical Fate and Transport in the Atmosphere
References
Further Readings
Chapter 9: Particles in the Atmosphere
9.1. Particles in the Atmosphere
9.2. Physical Behavior of Particles in the Atmosphere
9.2.1. Size and Settling of Atmospheric Particles
9.3. Physical Processes for Particle Formation
9.4. Chemical Processes for Particle Formation
9.4.1. Inorganic Particles
9.4.2. Organic Particles
9.5. The Composition of Inorganic Particles
9.5.1. Fly Ash
9.5.2. Asbestos
9.6. Toxic Metals in the Atmosphere
9.6.1. Atmospheric Mercury
9.6.2. Atmospheric Lead
9.6.3. Atmospheric Beryllium
9.7. Radioactive Particles
9.8. Organic Particles in the Atmosphere
9.8.1. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
9.8.2. Carbonaceous Particles from Diesel Engines
9.9. Effects of Particles
9.9.1. The Asian Brown Cloud: Climate and Health Effects
9.9.2. Partitioning of Semivolatile Organic Substances between Air and Particles
9.10. Water as Particulate Matter
9.11. Atmospheric Chemical Reactions Involving Particles
9.12. Control of Particle Emissions
9.12.1. Particle Removal by Sedimentation and Inertia
9.12.2. Particle Filtration
9.12.3. Scrubbers
9.12.4. Electrostatic Removal
References
Further Readings
Chapter 10: Gaseous Inorganic Air Pollutants
10.1. Inorganic Pollutant Gases
10.2. Production and Control of Carbon Monoxide
10.2.1. Control of Carbon Monoxide Emissions
10.3. Fate of Atmospheric Co
10.4. Sulfur Dioxide Sources and the Sulfur Cycle
10.5. Sulfur Dioxide Reactions in the Atmosphere
10.5.1. Effects of Atmospheric Sulfur Dioxide
10.5.2. Sulfur Dioxide Removal
10.5.3. Oxy-Fuel Combustion for Sulfur Dioxide and Carbon Dioxide Recovery
10.6. Nitrogen Oxides in the Atmosphere
10.6.1. Atmospheric Reactions of NOx
10.6.2. Harmful Effects of Nitrogen Oxides
10.6.3. Control of Nitrogen Oxides
10.6.4. Limiting Production and Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides
10.6.5. Removal of Nitrogen Oxides from Stack Gas and Engine Exhaust Gases
10.7. Acid Rain
10.8. Ammonia in the Atmosphere
10.9. Fluorine, Chlorine, and their Gaseous Compounds
10.9.1. Chlorine and Hydrogen Chloride
10.9.2. Hydrogen Chloride in the Atmosphere
10.10. Reduced Sulfur Gases
References
Further Readings
Chapter 11: Organic Air Pollutants
11.1. Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere
11.1.1. Loss of Organic Substances from the Atmosphere
11.1.2. Persistent Organic Pollutants
11.1.3. Global Distillation and Fractionation of POPs
11.2. Biogenic Organic Compounds
11.2.1. Biogenic Methane
11.2.2. Biogenic Hydrocarbons from Plants
11.2.3. Removal of Atmospheric Organic Compounds by Plants
11.3. Pollutant Hydrocarbons
11.3.1. Aromatic Hydrocarbons
11.3.2. Reactions of Atmospheric Aromatic Hydrocarbons
11.4. Carbonyl Compounds
11.5. Miscellaneous Oxygen-Containing Compounds
11.5.1. Alcohols
11.5.2. Phenols
11.5.3. Ethers
11.5.4. Oxides
11.5.5. Carboxylic Acids
11.6. Organonitrogen Compounds
11.7. Organohalide Compounds
11.7.1. CFCs and Halons
11.7.2. Atmospheric Reactions of Hydrofluorocarbons and Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
11.7.3. Perfluorocarbons
11.7.4. Chlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins and Dibenzofurans
11.8. Organosulfur Compounds
11.9. Organic Particulate Matter
11.10. Hazardous Air Pollutant Organic Compounds
References
Further Readings
Chapter 12: Photochemical Smog
12.1. Reduced Visibility When the Sun Shines
12.2. Smog-Forming Emissions
12.2.1. Control of Exhaust Hydrocarbons
12.2.2. Automotive Emission Standards
12.2.3. Polluting Green Plants
12.3. Smog-Forming Reactions of Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere
12.3.1. Photochemical Reactions of Methane
12.3.2. Addition Reactions in the Atmosphere
12.4. Overview of Smog Formation
12.5. Mechanisms of Smog Formation
12.5.1. Nitrate Radical
12.5.2. Photolyzable Compounds in the Atmosphere
12.6. Reactivity of Hydrocarbons
12.7. Importance of HOx/VOC Ratios
12.8. Inorganic Products from Smog
12.9. Effects of Smog
References
Further Readings
Chapter 13: The Endangered Global Atmosphere
13.1. Saving the Atmosphere to Save Ourselves
13.1.1. Preservation of the Atmosphere’s Natural Capital
13.2. The Earth’s Evolving Atmosphere and Climate Change
13.2.1. Changes in Climate
13.3. Effects of the Anthrosphere on the Atmosphere and Climate
13.3.1. Destroying the Earth’s Lungs: Destruction of the Amazon Forest
13.4. The Greatest Threat to the Atmosphere and the Earth System: Global Warming
13.4.1. Methane and Other Greenhouse Gases
13.4.2. Particles and Global Warming
13.5. Consequences of Global Climate Change
13.5.1. Increasing Temperature
13.5.2. Passing the Tipping Points
13.5.3. Loss of Ice Cover
13.5.4. Glaciers and Water Supply
13.5.5. Expansion of Subtropical Arid Regions and Drought
13.5.6. Some Other Effects of Global Climate Change
13.6. Green Science and Technology to Alleviate Global Warming
13.6.1. Minimization
13.6.2. Counteracting Measures
13.6.3. Adaptation
13.7. Acid Rain
13.8. Stratospheric Ozone Destruction
13.8.1. Shielding Effect of the Ozone Layer
13.8.2. Ozone Layer Destruction
13.8.3. Green Chemistry Solutions to Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
13.9. Atmospheric Brown Clouds
13.9.1. Yellow Dust
13.10. Atmospheric Damage by Photochemical Smog
13.11. The Urban Aerosol
13.12. Nuclear Winter
13.12.1. “Doomsday Visitors” from Space
13.13. What Is to Be Done?
References
Further Readings
Chapter 14: The Geosphere and Geochemistry
14.1. The Geosphere
14.1.1. The Fragile Solid Earth and its Relationship with the Other Environmental Spheres
14.2. Physical Form of the Geosphere
14.2.1. Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift
14.2.2. Structural Geology
14.3. The Nature of Solids in the Geosphere
14.3.1. Structure and Properties of Minerals
14.3.2. Kinds of Minerals
14.3.3. Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic Rock in the Rock Cycle
14.3.4. Rock Cycle
14.4. Geochemistry and Weathering of Rock in the Geosphere
14.4.1. Physical Aspects of Weathering
14.4.2. Chemical Weathering
14.4.3. Biological Aspects of Weathering
14.5. Clays: Especially Important Weathering Products and Secondary Minerals
14.6. Sediments
14.7. Groundwater in the Geosphere
14.7.1. Water Wells
14.7.2. Water Wells and the Arsenic Problem
14.8. The Geosphere as a Source of Natural Capital
14.8.1. The Extraordinary Importance of Lithium
14.9. Environmental Phenomena of the Geosphere
14.9.1. Natural Hazards
14.9.2. Anthropogenic Hazards
14.10. Volcanoes
14.11. Earthquakes
14.12. Surface Earth Movement
14.13. Effects of Human Activities
14.13.1. Extraction of Geospheric Resources: Surface Mining
14.13.2. Environmental Effects of Mining and Mineral Extraction
14.14. Air Pollution and the Geosphere
14.15. Water Pollution and the Geosphere
14.16. The Geosphere as a Waste Repository
References
Further Readings
Chapter 15: Soil: Earth’s Lifeline
15.1. Have You Thanked A Clod Today?
15.1.1. What is Soil?
15.1.2. Agriculture and Soil
15.2. Structure of Soil
15.3. Composition of Soil
15.3.1. Water in Soil
15.3.2. The Soil Solution
15.3.3. Air in Soil
15.3.4. Inorganic Solids in Soil
15.3.5. Soil Organic Matter
15.4. Acid–Base and Ion-Exchange Reactions in Soil
15.4.1. Acid–Base Reactions of Soil
15.4.2. Adjustment of Soil Acidity
15.4.3. Ion-Exchange Equilibria in Soil
15.5. Macronutrients in Soil
15.5.1. Sulfur in Soil and as a Macronutrient
15.6. Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium in Soil
15.6.1. Nitrogen
15.6.2. Phosphorus
15.6.3. Potassium
15.7. Micronutrients in Soil
15.8. Fertilizers
15.8.1. Fertilizer Pollution
15.9. Pesticides and their Residues in Soil
15.9.1. Soil Fumigants
15.10. Wastes and Pollutants and their Degradation on Soil
15.10.1. Soil Pollutants from Livestock Production
15.10.2. Biodegradation and the Rhizosphere
15.11. Soil Loss and Degradation
15.11.1. Soil Sustainability and Water Resources
15.12. Saving the Land
15.12.1. Agroforestry
15.12.2. Soil Restoration
15.12.3. Poduculture in Soil Restoration
15.13. Green Chemistry and Sustainable Agriculture
15.14. Genetics and Agriculture
15.14.1. Recombinant DNA and Genetic Engineering in Agriculture
15.14.2. The Major Transgenic Crops and Their Characteristics
15.14.3. Crops versus Pests
15.14.4. Future Crops
15.15. Agriculture and Health
15.15.1. Food Contamination
15.16. Protecting the Food Supply from Attack
References
Further Readings
Chapter 16: The Anthrosphere: Industrial Ecology and Green Chemistry
16.1. Changing the Bad Old Ways
16.2. Green Chemistry
16.3. Reduction of Risk: Hazard and Exposure
16.3.1. The Risks of Not Taking Risks
16.4. Waste Prevention and Green Chemistry
16.5. Green Chemistry and Synthetic Chemistry
16.5.1. Yield and Atom Economy
16.6. Feedstocks
16.6.1. Biological Feedstocks
16.7. Reagents
16.8. Stoichiometric and Catalytic Reagents
16.9. Media and Solvents
16.9.1. Water, the Greenest Solvent
16.9.2. Dense Phase Carbon Dioxide as a Solvent
16.9.3. Gas-Expanded Solvents
16.10. Enhancing Reactions
16.11. Industrial Ecology
16.12. The Five Major Components of an Industrial Ecosystem
16.13. Industrial Metabolism
16.14. The Kalundborg Industrial Ecosystem
16.15. Attributes of Successful Industrial Ecosystems
16.15.1. Diversity
16.16. Environmental Impacts in Industrial Ecology
16.17. Life Cycles: Expanding and Closing the Materials Loop
16.17.1. Product Stewardship
16.17.2. Embedded Utility
16.18. Design for Environment
16.18.1. Products, Processes, and Facilities
16.18.2. Key Factors in Design for Environment
16.18.3. Hazardous Materials in Design for Environment
16.19. Inherent Safety
16.19.1. Increased Safety with Smaller Size
16.20. Industrial Ecology and Ecological Engineering
References
Further Readings
Chapter 17: Resources and Sustainable Materials
17.1. Where to Get the Stuff We Need?
17.2. Extraction of Materials from the Geosphere
17.3. Environmental Effects of Mining and Mineral Extraction
17.4. Sustainable Utilization of Geospheric Mineral Resources
17.4.1. Metals
17.5. Metal Resources and Industrial Ecology
17.5.1. Aluminum
17.5.2. Chromium
17.5.3. Copper
17.5.4. Cobalt
17.5.5. Lead
17.5.6. Lithium
17.5.7. Zinc
17.5.8. Rare Earths
17.6. Nonmetal Mineral Resources
17.7. Phosphates
17.8. Sulfur
17.8.1. Gypsum
17.9. Wood: An Abundant Renewable Resource
17.10. Extending Resources with Industrial Ecology
17.10.1. Metals
17.10.2. Plastics and Rubber
17.10.3. Lubricating Oil
References
Further Readings
Chapter 18: Sustainable Energy: The Key to Everything
18.1. The Energy Problem
18.2. Nature Of Energy
18.3. Sustainable Energy: Away from the Sun and Back Again
18.3.1. The Brief Era of Fossil Fuels
18.3.2. Back to the Sun
18.4. Sources of Energy Used in the Anthrosphere: Present and Future
18.5. Energy Devices and Conversions
18.5.1. Fuel Cells
18.6. Energy Conservation and Renewable Energy Sources
18.6.1. Renewable Energy
18.6.2. Heavy Oil
18.6.3. Shale Oil
18.6.4. Natural Gas Liquids
18.7. Natural Gas
18.8. Coal
18.8.1. Coal Conversion
18.9. Carbon Sequestration for Fossil Fuel Utilization
18.10. The Great Plains Synfuels Plant: Industrial Ecology in Practice to Produce Energy and Chemicals
18.11. Nuclear Energy
18.11.1. Thorium-Fueled Reactors
18.11.2. Nuclear Fusion
18.12. Geothermal Energy
18.13. The Sun: An Ideal, Renewable Energy Source
18.13.1. Solar Photovoltaic Energy Systems
18.13.2. Artificial Photosynthesis for Capturing Solar Energy
18.14. Energy from the Earth’s Two Great Fluids in Motion
18.14.1. The Success of Wind Power
18.14.2. Energy from Moving Water
18.14.3. Energy from Moving Water without Dams
18.15. Biomass Energy: An Overview of Biofuels and their Resources
18.15.1. Processing of Biofuel to More Compact Forms
18.15.2. Decarbonization with Biomass Utilization
18.15.3. Conversion of Biomass to Other Fuels
18.15.4. Ethanol Fuel
18.15.5. Biodiesel Fuel
18.15.6. Fuel from Algae
18.15.7. The Potential of Lignocellulose Fuels
18.15.8. Chemical Conversion of Biomass to Synthetic Fuels
18.15.9. Biogas
18.15.10. Biorefineries and Utilizing Biomass for Energy
18.15.11. A System of Industrial Ecology for Methane Production from Renewable Sources
18.16. Hydrogen as a Means to Store and Utilize Energy
18.17. Combined Power Cycles
References
Further Readings
Chapter 19: The Nature, Sources, and Environmental Chemistry of Hazardous Wastes
19.1. Introduction
19.1.1. History of Hazardous Substances
19.1.2. Legislation
19.2. Classification of Hazardous Substances and Wastes
19.2.1. Characteristics and Listed Wastes
19.2.2. Hazardous Wastes
19.2.3. Hazardous Wastes and Air and Water Pollution Control
19.3. Sources of Wastes
19.3.1. Types of Hazardous Wastes
19.3.2. Hazardous Waste Generators
19.4. Flammable and Combustible Substances
19.4.1. Combustion of Finely Divided Particles
19.4.2. Oxidizers
19.4.3. Spontaneous Ignition
19.4.4. Toxic Products of Combustion
19.5. Reactive Substances
19.5.1. Chemical Structure and Reactivity
19.6. Corrosive Substances
19.6.1. Sulfuric Acid
19.7. Toxic Substances
19.7.1. Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure
19.8. Physical Forms and Segregation of Wastes
19.9. Environmental Chemistry of Hazardous Wastes
19.10. Physical and Chemical Properties of Hazardous Wastes
19.11. Transport, Effects, and Fates of Hazardous Wastes
19.11.1. Physical Properties of Wastes
19.11.2. Chemical Factors
19.11.3. Effects of Hazardous Wastes
19.11.4. Fates of hazardous wastes
19.12. Hazardous Wastes and the Anthrosphere
19.13. Hazardous Wastes in the Geosphere
19.14. Hazardous Wastes in the Hydrosphere
19.15. Hazardous Wastes in the Atmosphere
19.16. Hazardous Wastes in the Biosphere
19.16.1. Microbial Metabolism in Waste Degradation
19.16.2. Ecotoxicology of Hazardous Wastes
19.17. Hazardous Substances in Terrorism
19.17.1. Detection of Hazardous Substances
19.17.2. Removing Hazardous Agents
References
Further Readings
Chapter 20: Industrial Ecology for Waste Minimization, Utilization, and Treatment
20.1. Introduction
20.2. Waste Reduction and Minimization
20.3. Recycling
20.3.1. Examples of Recycling
20.3.2. Waste Oil Utilization and Recovery
20.3.3. Waste Oil Fuel
20.3.4. Waste Solvent Recovery and Recycle
20.3.5. Recovery of Water from Wastewater
20.4. Physical Methods of Waste Treatment
20.4.1. Methods of Physical Treatment
20.4.2. Phase Separations
20.4.3. Phase Transition
20.4.4. Phase Transfer
20.4.5. Molecular Separation
20.5. Chemical Treatment: An Overview
20.5.1. Acid/Base Neutralization
20.5.2. Chemical Precipitation
20.5.3. Coprecipitation of Metals
20.5.4. Oxidation/Reduction
20.5.5. Electrolysis
20.5.6. Hydrolysis
20.5.7. Chemical Extraction and Leaching
20.5.8. Ion Exchange
20.6. Green Waste Treatment by Photolysis and Sonolysis
20.7. Thermal Treatment Methods
20.7.1. Incineration Systems
20.7.2. Wet Air Oxidation
20.7.3. UV-Enhanced Wet Oxidation
20.7.4. Destruction of Hazardous Wastes in Cement Manufacture
20.8. Biodegradation of Wastes
20.9. Phytoremediation
20.10. Land Treatment and Composting
20.10.1. Land Treatment
20.10.2. Composting
20.11. Preparation of Wastes for Disposal
20.12. Ultimate Disposal of Wastes
20.12.1. Disposal Aboveground
20.12.2. Landfill
20.12.3. Surface Impoundment of Liquids
20.12.4. Deep-Well Disposal of Liquids
20.13. Leachate and Gas Emissions
20.14. In Situ Treatment
20.14.1. In Situ Thermal Processes
References
Further Readings
Chapter 21: The Biosphere: Environmental Biochemistry
21.1. Life and the Biosphere
21.1.1. The Biosphere in Stabilizing the Earth System: The Gaia Hypothesis
21.2. Metabolism and Control in Organisms
21.2.1. Enzymes in Metabolism
21.2.2. Nutrients
21.2.3. Control in Organisms
21.3. Reproduction and Inherited Traits
21.4. Stability and Equilibrium of the Biosphere
21.5. Biochemistry
21.5.1. Biomolecules
21.6. Biochemistry and the Cell
21.6.1. Major Cell Features
21.7. Proteins
21.7.1. Protein Structure
21.7.2. Denaturation of Proteins
21.8. Carbohydrates
21.9. Lipids
21.10. Enzymes
21.11. Nucleic Acids
21.11.1. Nucleic Acids in Protein Synthesis
21.11.2. Modified DNA
21.12. Recombinant Dna and Genetic Engineering
21.13. Metabolic Processes
21.13.1. Energy-Yielding Processes
21.14. Metabolism of Xenobiotic Compounds
21.14.1. Phase I and Phase II Reactions
References
Further Readings
Chapter 22: Toxicological Chemistry
22.1. Introduction to Toxicology and Toxicological Chemistry
22.1.1. Toxicology
22.1.2. Synergism, Potentiation, and Antagonism
22.2. Dose–Response Relationships
22.3. Relative Toxicities
22.3.1. Nonlethal Effects
22.4. Reversibility and Sensitivity
22.4.1. Hypersensitivity and Hyposensitivity
22.5. Xenobiotic and Endogenous Substances
22.6. Toxicological Chemistry
22.6.1. Toxicants in the Body
22.6.2. Phase I Reactions
22.6.3. Phase II Reactions
22.7. Kinetic Phase and Dynamic Phase
22.7.1. Kinetic Phase
22.7.2. Dynamic Phase
22.7.3. Primary Reaction in the Dynamic Phase
22.7.4. Biochemical Effects in the Dynamic Phase
22.7.5. Responses to Toxicants
22.8. Teratogenesis, Mutagenesis, Carcinogenesis, and Effects on the Immune and Reproductive Systems
22.8.1. Teratogenesis
22.8.2. Mutagenesis
22.8.3. Biochemistry of Mutagenesis
22.8.4. Carcinogenesis
22.8.5. Biochemistry of Carcinogenesis
22.8.6. Alkylating Agents in Carcinogenesis
22.8.7. Testing for Carcinogens
22.8.8. Bruce Ames Test
22.8.9. Immune System Response
22.8.10. Endocrine Disruption
22.9. Health Hazards
22.9.1. Assessment of Potential Exposure
22.9.2. Epidemiological Evidence
22.9.3. Estimation of Health Effects Risks
22.9.4. Risk Assessment
References
Further Readings
Chapter 23: Toxicological Chemistry of Chemical Substances
23.1. Introduction
23.1.1. ATSDR Toxicological Profiles
23.2. Toxic Elements and Elemental Forms
23.2.1. Ozone
23.2.2. White Phosphorus
23.2.3. Elemental Halogens
23.2.4. Heavy Metals
23.3. Toxic inorganic Compounds
23.3.1. Cyanide
23.3.2. Carbon Monoxide
23.3.3. Nitrogen Oxides
23.3.4. Hydrogen Halides
23.3.5. Hydrogen Fluoride
23.3.6. Hydrogen Chloride
23.3.7. Interhalogen Compounds and Halogen Oxides
23.3.8. Inorganic Compounds of Silicon
23.3.9. Asbestos
23.3.10. Inorganic Phosphorus Compounds
23.3.11. Inorganic Compounds of Sulfur
23.3.12. Perchlorate
23.3.13. Organometallic Compounds
23.3.14. Organolead Compounds
23.3.15. Organotin Compounds
23.3.16. Carbonyls
23.3.17. Reaction Products of Organometallic Compounds
23.4. Toxicology of Organic Compounds
23.4.1. Alkane Hydrocarbons
23.4.2. Alkene and Alkyne Hydrocarbons
23.4.3. Benzene and Aromatic Hydrocarbons
23.4.4. Toluene
23.4.5. Naphthalene
23.4.6. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
23.4.7. Oxygen-Containing Organic Compounds
23.4.7.1. Oxides
23.4.7.2. Alcohols
23.4.7.3. Phenols
23.4.7.4. Aldehydes and Ketones
23.4.7.5. Carboxylic Acids
23.4.7.6. Ethers
23.4.7.7. Acid Anhydrides
23.4.7.8. Esters
23.4.8. Organonitrogen Compounds
23.4.8.1. Aliphatic Amines
23.4.8.2. Carbocyclic Aromatic Amines
23.4.8.3. Pyridine
23.4.8.4. Melamine
23.4.8.5. Acrylamide: Toxic Potato Chips?
23.4.8.6. Nitriles
23.4.8.7. Nitro Compounds
23.4.8.8. Nitrosamines
23.4.8.9. Isocyanates and Methyl Isocyanate
23.4.8.10. Organonitrogen Pesticides
23.4.9. Organohalide Compounds
23.4.9.1. Alkyl Halides
23.4.9.2. Alkenyl Halides
23.4.9.3. Aryl Halides
23.4.10. Organohalide Pesticides
23.4.10.1. TCDD
23.4.10.2. Chlorinated Phenols
23.4.11. Organosulfur Compounds
23.4.11.1. Sulfur Mustards
23.4.12. Organophosphorus Compounds
23.4.12.1. Organophosphate Esters
23.4.12.2. Phosphorothionate and Phosphorodithioate Ester Insecticides
23.4.12.3. Organophosphorus Military Poisons
23.5. Toxic Natural Products
References
Further Readings
Chapter 24: Chemical Analysis in Environmental and Toxicological Chemistry
24.1. Analytical Chemistry
24.2. The Chemical Analysis Process
24.3. Major Categories of Chemical Analysis
24.4. Error and Treatment of Data
24.5. Gravimetric and Volumetric Analyses
24.6. Spectrophotometric Methods of Analysis
24.6.1. Absorption Spectrophotometry
24.6.2. Atomic Absorption and Emission Analyses
24.6.3. Atomic Emission Techniques
24.7. Electrochemical Methods of Analysis
24.8. Chromatography
24.8.1. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
24.8.2. Ion Chromatography
24.9. Methods for Water Analysis
24.10. Mass Spectrometry
24.11. Automated Analyses
24.12. Immunoassay Screening
24.13. Total Organic Carbon in Water
24.14. Measurement of Radioactivity in Water
24.15. Analysis of Wastes and Solids
24.15.1. Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure
24.16. Atmospheric Monitoring
24.16.1. Methods for Sampling and Analyzing Atmospheric Pollutants
24.16.2. Atmospheric Carbon Monoxide by Infrared Absorption
24.16.3. Determination of Hydrocarbons and Organics in the Atmosphere
24.16.4. Direct Spectrophotometric Analysis of Gaseous Air Pollutants
24.17. Analysis of Biological Materials and Xenobiotics
24.17.1. Indicators of Exposure to Xenobiotics
24.17.2. Immunological Methods of Xenobiotics Analysis
References
Further Readings
Index