Emerging Modalities in Mitigation of Antimicrobial Resistance

About This Book
Contents
About the Editors
Part I: Current Status and Active Dynamics of AMR
Chapter 1: Antimicrobials in Livestock Production and Its Cross-Domain Dynamics
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Antimicrobial Use in Livestock
1.2.1 History
1.2.2 Numbers Behind Antimicrobial Use in Livestock
1.3 Why Are Antimicrobials Used in Livestock?
1.3.1 Antimicrobials as a Growth Promoter
1.3.2 Prophylactic Use of Antimicrobials in Livestock
1.3.3 Therapeutic Use of Antimicrobials in Livestock
1.4 Antimicrobial Resistance
1.5 How Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance Flow Between Humans, Livestock, and the Environment?
1.5.1 Agricultural Production Method
1.5.2 Livestock Waste
1.5.3 Exposure to Other Animals and Insects
1.5.4 Movement of Animals and Food
1.5.5 Environment
1.6 Zoonosis of Antimicrobial Resistance
1.7 One Health and Antimicrobial Resistance
1.8 Third-Generation Cephalosporins: A One Health Example
1.8.1 Antimicrobial Stewardship
1.9 Alternatives to Antimicrobial Use in Livestock
1.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Antibiotics and Resistance in Environment
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Treatment Systems and Antibiotics in the Environment
2.3 Impacts of Antibiotics on Environment
2.4 Antibiotic Resistance in Environment
2.4.1 Resistance Genes in the Environment
2.4.2 Transmission Vectors
2.4.2.1 Air and Surface Water
2.4.2.2 Animal Vectors
2.5 Cytotoxic Effects of Antibiotics in the Environment
2.5.1 Toxic Effects of Antibiotic Pollution on Microbial Communities
2.5.2 Toxic Effects of Antibiotic Pollution on Higher Organisms
2.5.2.1 Physiological Effects
2.5.2.2 Effect on Host Microbiome
2.6 Gaps in Current Policies to Tackle Antibiotic Pollution
2.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Antimicrobial Agents in Agriculture and Their Implications in Antimicrobial Resistance
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Antibiotics in Agriculture
3.2.1 Antibiotics
3.2.1.1 On the Basis of Chemical or Molecular Structures
3.2.1.1.1 β-Lactams
3.2.1.1.2 Tetracyclines
3.2.1.1.3 Quinolones
3.2.1.1.4 Aminoglycosides
3.2.1.1.5 Sulfonamides
3.2.1.1.6 Glycopeptides
3.2.1.1.7 Oxazolidinones
3.2.1.1.8 Macrolides
3.2.1.2 On the Basis of Mode of Action
3.2.1.2.1 Antibiotics Inhibits the Synthesis of Bacterial Cell Wall
3.2.1.2.2 Antibiotics Disrupts the Function or Structure of Cell Membrane
3.2.1.2.3 Antibiotics Inhibits the Synthesis of Nucleic Acid
3.2.1.2.4 Antibiotics Inhibiting the Protein Synthesis
3.2.1.2.5 Antibiotics Blocking the Key Metabolic Pathway
3.2.2 Crop Protection
3.2.3 Animal Husbandry
3.2.4 Aquaculture
3.3 Routes of transmission of Antimicrobial-Resistant Bacteria in the Environment
3.4 Consequences of Antibiotic Use in Agriculture
3.4.1 Consequences of Antimicrobial Resistance in Crop Disease
3.4.2 Medical Consequences of Antibiotic Use in Agriculture
3.4.2.1 Escherichia coli
3.4.2.2 Salmonella spp.
3.4.2.3 Vibrio spp.
3.4.2.4 Shigella spp.
3.4.2.5 Campylobacter spp.
3.4.2.6 Helicobacter spp.
3.4.2.7 Urinary Tract Infection Causing Pathogens
3.5 Mechanisms of Antibiotic Resistance
3.5.1 Transfer of Antibiotic Resistance in Clinical Isolates via Agricultural Sources
3.5.1.1 Horizontal Gene Transfer
3.5.1.1.1 Conjugation
3.5.1.1.2 Transformation
3.5.1.1.3 Transduction
3.5.1.2 Vertical Gene Transfer
3.6 Antimicrobial Resistance and Health Risks to Humans
3.7 Antibiotic Stewardship and Public Awareness to Mitigate the Health Risks to Humans
3.8 Alternatives to Antimicrobial Agents in Agriculture
3.9 Regulatory Agencies and Their Role in Regulating Antibiotic Use and Global Partnerships in Antimicrobial Resistance
3.10 Conclusions
References
Chapter 4: Modern Diagnostic Tools for Rapid Detection of Multidrug Resistance
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Origin and Transmission of Multidrug Resistance
4.3 Methods for Detection of Multidrug Resistance
4.3.1 Microscopy
4.3.2 Molecular Approaches
4.3.2.1 PCR-Based Approach
4.3.2.2 RNA-Based Approach
4.3.2.3 Isothermal Amplification
4.3.2.4 DNA Microarrays
4.3.3 Flow Cytometry
4.3.4 MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry
4.3.5 Biosensors
4.3.6 Immunodiagnostics
4.3.7 Chemiluminescence and Bioluminescence
4.3.8 Colorimetric Methods
4.4 Conclusions and Future Outlook
References
Chapter 5: The Use of Antimicrobials in Agriculture and Socioeconomic Considerations in Global Perspective
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Antimicrobials in Agriculture
5.2.1 AMR due to Manure
5.2.2 Fate of Antimicrobials in Agriculture
5.3 Antimicrobials as Growth Promoters
5.4 Clinical Implications
5.5 High-Throughput Methods in the Study of AMR in Agriculture
5.6 Agriculture, AMR, and Socioeconomic Aspects
5.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6: Epidemiology of Microbial Infections
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Chain of Infection
6.1.1.1 Etiologic Agent
6.1.1.2 Transmission Methods
6.1.1.2.1 Contact Transmission
6.1.1.2.2 Common Vehicle Transmission
6.1.1.2.3 Airborne Transmission
6.1.1.2.4 Vector-Borne Transmission
6.1.1.3 Host
6.2 Mechanism of Microbial Infection
6.2.1 Mechanism of Bacterial Infection
6.2.1.1 A Bacterial Pathogen After Encountering A Human Host Initiates Several Mechanisms To Evade the Host defenses:
6.2.1.2 Invasion
6.2.2 Mechanism of Viral Infection
6.3 Types of Microbial Infection and Its Reservoirs
6.3.1 Bacterial Classification
6.3.2 Viral Classification
6.3.3 Parasitic Classification
6.3.4 Fungal Classification
6.4 Epidemiology of Microbial Infections
6.4.1 Types of Epidemiological Study
6.5 Prevalence and Temporal Patterns of Microbial Infections
6.6 Prevention and Cure of Microbial Infections
6.6.1 Prevention and Cure of Bacterial Infections
6.6.2 Prevention and Cure of Viral Infections
6.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 7: Socioeconomic Impact of Antimicrobial Resistance and Their Integrated Mitigation by One Health Approach
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Antimicrobial Agent
7.3 Antimicrobial Resistance
7.4 Mechanism of Resistance
7.5 Human Practice Accelerating Rate of AMR
7.6 Socioeconomic Impact
7.6.1 Economic Impact
7.6.1.1 Patient Perspectives
7.6.1.2 Physician Perspectives
7.6.1.3 Drug Industry Perspectives
7.6.1.4 Health-Care Perspectives
7.6.2 Social Impact
7.7 Importance of One Health Approach
7.8 AMR Surveillance: Role of One Health Framework
7.9 Ten Ways to Tackle AMR
7.10 Strategies of One Health in Mitigation of AMR
7.11 Conclusions
References
Part II: Mode of Action of Antimicrobials in Mitigation of AMR
Chapter 8: Regulations in Antimicrobial Drug Development: Challenges and New Incentives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Drug Development Pipeline
8.3 Clinical Trials
8.4 Challenges in Antimicrobial Drug Development
8.5 Harmonization of Regulatory Policies: A Collaborative Effort
8.6 New Incentives in Regulations and Policies
8.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 9: New Insights into and Updates on Antimicrobial Agents
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Antimicrobial Agents from Natural Origin
9.3 Plant-Derived Antimicrobial Agents
9.4 Bacterial Origin Antimicrobial Agents
9.5 Fungal-Derived Antimicrobial Agents
9.6 Animal Origin Antimicrobial Agents
9.7 Mechanism of Antimicrobials
9.8 Current Antimicrobial Therapy and Drug Resistant
9.9 Future Opportunities
References
Chapter 10: Polyphenols as Emerging Antimicrobial Agents
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Type of Flavonoids and Their Antimicrobial Activity
10.2.1 Flavonols and Their Antimicrobial Activity
10.2.2 Flavones and Isoflavone and Their Antimicrobial Activity
10.2.3 Flavanones and Their Antimicrobial Activity
10.2.4 Flavan-3-ols as Antimicrobial Agent
10.3 Tannins and Its Antimicrobial Activity
10.3.1 Proanthocyanidins
10.3.2 Hydrolyzable Tannins
10.4 Non-flavonoid Polyphenols and Their Antimicrobial Activity
10.5 Synergistic Antimicrobial Activities of Polyphenols and Antibiotics
10.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 11: Antimicrobial Peptides and Small Molecules as Antibiotics Substitute
11.1 Introduction
11.2 AMPs from Diverse Natural Origin
11.2.1 AMPs Isolated from Insects
11.2.2 AMPs Isolated from Invertebrates
11.2.3 AMPs Isolated from Vertebrates
11.3 AMPs of Synthetic Origin
11.4 Classification of AMPs
11.4.1 α-Helical AMPs
11.4.2 Cysteine-Rich AMPs
11.4.3 β-Sheet AMPs
11.4.4 AMPs Rich in Regular Amino Acids
11.4.5 AMPs with Rare Modified Amino Acids
11.5 Structure of AMPs
11.6 Mechanism of Action for Antimicrobial Peptides
11.6.1 Most Validated Mechanisms of Action for AMPs
11.6.2 Other Reported Mechanisms for Antimicrobial Peptides
11.7 Multi-functional Roles of AMPs
11.7.1 Wound Repair
11.7.2 Skin Infections
11.7.3 Antiviral Activity
11.7.4 Antitumoral Activity
11.7.5 AMPs Against Sexually Transmitted Infections
11.7.6 Anti-malarial Activity
11.7.7 Spermicidal Agents
11.7.8 Buco-Dental Infections
11.7.9 Ocular Infections
11.7.10 Kostmann’s Syndrome
11.7.11 Food Preservatives
11.7.12 Miscellaneous Uses
11.8 AMPs as Targets for Therapy
11.9 Challenges Faced by Antimicrobial Peptides
11.10 AMPs and Analogues Under Clinical Trials and in Clinical Use
11.11 Other Small Molecule Alternatives to Conventional Antibiotics
11.11.1 Bacteriocins
11.11.2 Innate Defense Regulatory (IDR) Peptides
11.11.3 Synthetically Designed Strategies Synthetic Mimics of Antimicrobial Peptides (SMAMPs)
11.11.4 Antibacterial Oligonucleotides
11.11.5 Foldamers
11.11.6 Antibacterial Nucleic Acids
11.11.7 Immune Stimulation by P4 Peptide
11.12 Conclusions
References
Chapter 12: Molecular Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus Biofilms
12.1 Biofilms: Introduction
12.2 Staphylococcus aureus
12.3 S. aureus Stages of Biofilm Development
12.3.1 Attachment
12.3.2 Maturation/Proliferation
12.3.3 Dispersal
12.4 Impact of Quorum Sensing on S. aureus Gene Expression and Biofilm Formation
12.5 Biofilm Resistance, Tolerance, and Persistence
12.6 Conclusions
Bibliography
Chapter 13: Antimicrobial Resistance: Meaning and Developing Realization
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Overview of Current Antimicrobial Resistance
13.3 Status of Antimicrobial Drug Discovery and Development, and Evolution of Antimicrobial Resistance
13.4 The Drug Discovery Pipeline and the Future
13.5 Drug-Resistant Microbes
13.6 Global Approaches for Control of Drug Resistance
13.7 The Indian Scenario in Brief
13.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Chemical Diversity in Fungi: Strategies to Mitigate Antimicrobial Resistance
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Strategies for Antimicrobial Resistance Management
14.3 Fungi as a Goldmine of Novel Chemistries for Curbing Antimicrobial Resistance
14.4 Strategies Adopted to Explore the Chemical Diversity of Fungi
14.4.1 Genome Mining
14.5 Genome Mining as Tool of Novel Chemistries
14.6 Some Important Compound Analyzed and Identified Using Genome Mining Tools
14.6.1 Lasso Peptides
14.6.2 Bacteriocin
14.6.3 Cyanobactins
14.6.4 Methanobactins
14.6.5 Polyketide
14.7 Genome Mining in Biosynthetic Gene Cluster-Based Families to Map the Pathway
14.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 15: Phage Therapy as an Alternative Treatment in the Fight Against AMR: Real-World Problems and Possible Futures
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR): The Crisis
15.3 Phage Biology Basics
15.4 Discovery and Early History of Bacteriophages
15.5 Mechanism of Action of Bacteriophages
15.6 Benefits and Limitations of Phage Therapy
15.7 Phage Therapy against Bacterial Infections in Humans
15.8 Phage Therapy: Problems and Alternative Solutions
15.9 Future Challenges and Role of Bacteriophages
15.10 Emerging Approaches in Phage Therapy
15.11 Conclusions
References
Part III: Novel Strategies to Combat AMR
Chapter 16: Omics and In Silico Approaches in the Surveillance and Monitoring of Antimicrobial Resistance
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Omics of Antimicrobial Resistance
16.3 Genomics in Antimicrobial Resistance
16.4 Transcriptomics in Antimicrobial Resistance
16.5 Proteomics in Antimicrobial Resistance
16.6 Metabolomics in Antimicrobial Resistance
16.7 Meta-omic Approaches in Antimicrobial Resistance
16.8 Bioinformatics in Antimicrobial Resistance
16.9 Comprehensive Antibiotic Resistance Database (CARD)
16.10 ResFinder
16.11 PointFinder
16.12 MEGARes
16.13 PRAP (Pan Resistome Analysis Pipeline)
16.14 Other Databases
16.15 Global Collaborations for the Surveillance of AMR
16.16 Conclusions
References
Chapter 17: Antimicrobial Activity of Bioactive Compounds (Thymoquinone and Eugenol) and Its Nanoformulation Therapeutic Potential
17.1 Introduction
17.1.1 Chemistry and Sources
17.1.1.1 Eugenol
17.1.1.2 Thymoquinone
17.1.1.3 Significance of Natural Products
17.2 Pharmacology
17.2.1 Eugenol
17.2.2 Thymoquinone
17.3 Nanoformulation of Active Compounds
17.3.1 Eugenol
17.3.2 Thymoquinone
17.4 Toxicity of Bioactive Constituents
17.5 Challenges for the Development of Herbal Nanoformulation
17.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 18: Nanoparticles as a Future Alternative Against Multiple Drug Resistance
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Antibiotic Resistance Mechanisms
18.3 Nanoparticle Fabrication Approaches
18.3.1 Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs)
18.3.2 Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)
18.4 Mechanism of Action of Nanoparticles in Bacterial Cell
18.4.1 Mechanism of Action of AgNPs
18.4.2 Mechanism of Action of AuNPs
18.5 Mechanism of Action of NPs on Biofilm Formation
18.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 19: Nano-Cargo Boarded Defensins to Combat Multidrug Resistance
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Defensins
19.2.1 Classification of Defensins
19.2.1.1 α-Defensins
19.2.1.2 β-Defensins
19.2.1.3 θ-Defensins
19.3 Mechanism of Action of Defensins
19.4 Defensins as Therapeutic Candidates
19.4.1 In Vitro Synthesis of Defensins
19.4.1.1 Recombinant Synthesis
19.4.1.2 Chemical Synthesis
19.4.2 Limitations of Defensins as Therapeutic Candidates
19.4.3 Approaches to Overcome Limitations of Defensins
19.5 Nano-Cargos for Delivery of Antimicrobial Peptides
19.5.1 Inorganic/Metallic Nanoparticles
19.5.2 Polymeric Nanoparticles
19.6 Nano-Cargo Boarded Defensins in Combating Multidrug Resistance
19.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 20: Implementation of Diverse Nano-cargos to Disguise and Fight Multidrug Resistance
20.1 Introduction to Nano-vehicles
20.1.1 Metallic Nanoparticle-Based Nano-cargos
20.1.2 Carbon-Based Nano-vehicles
20.1.3 Liposomes-Based Nano-assemblies
20.1.4 Liquid Crystalline Particle-Based Nano-carriers
20.1.5 Dendritic System Nano-assemblages
20.1.6 Polymer-Based Nano-matrices
20.1.7 Hydrogel-Based Nano-networks
20.1.8 Cyclodextrin-Based Nano-vesicles
20.1.9 Aptamer-Based Nano-templates
20.2 Limitations on the Use of Nano-carriers
20.3 Conclusions
References
Chapter 21: Silver Nanoparticles as Potent Multidrug-Resistant Incorporants in Biomedicine
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Silver Nanoparticles as an Alternative Therapeutic to Disguise Multidrug-Resistant Microbes
21.3 Impact of AgNPs in Biomedicine
21.4 Silver NPs as a Potent Antimicrobial Therapeutic Against Multidrug Resistance
21.5 Mechanistics of AgNPs on Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria in Biomedicine
21.6 Factors Influencing the Bactericidal Effect of AgNPs
21.6.1 Nanoparticle Species
21.6.2 Particle Appearance and Morphology
21.6.3 Concentration
21.6.4 Stabilizing Agents
21.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 22: Role of Gold Nanoparticles Against Multidrug Resistance (MDR) Bacteria: An Emerging Therapeutic Revolution
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Antimicrobial Mechanism of Gold Nanoparticles
22.3 Combination/Conjugation Strategies of Gold Nanoparticles
22.4 Different Variants of Gold Nanostructures in Combating MDR
22.5 Antimicrobial Drug Resistance Mechanisms in Bacteria
22.6 Intracellular Uptake of Gold Nanostructures
22.6.1 Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Characteristics of AuNPs
22.7 Novel Therapeutic Approach of Gold Nanostructures for Combating MDR: Phage Therapy, Combined Ablation Photothermal Therapy, Photodynamic Therapy
22.7.1 Phage Therapy
22.7.2 Combined Ablation Photothermal Therapy
22.7.3 Photodynamic Therapy
22.8 Future Perspectives and Conclusions
References
Chapter 23: Carbon Nanoparticles: A Potential Cost-Effective Approach to Counter Antimicrobial Resistance
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Antibacterial Activity of Carbon Nanoparticles
23.3 Antifungal Activity of Carbon Nanoparticles
23.4 Antiviral Activity of Carbon Nanoparticles
23.5 Synthesis of Carbon Nanoparticles and their Mechanism of Action
23.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 24: Antimicrobial Interfaces as Augmentative Strategy Against Antimicrobial Resistance
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Antimicrobial Fabrics in Textiles
24.3 Imparting Antimicrobial Property by Chemical Treatments
24.4 Developing Antimicrobial Textiles Using Eco-Friendly Approach
24.5 Surface Modification of Textiles and Appliances with Antimicrobial Coating
24.6 Silver and Zinc Oxide Nanomaterials as Antimicrobial Agent for Natural and Synthetic Textiles
24.7 Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs) as Antimicrobials
24.8 Natural Polymeric and Graphene Oxide Nanocomposites with Antimicrobial Activities
24.9 Antimicrobial Coatings on Medical Devices
24.10 Antimicrobial Photocatalytic Coating
24.11 Antimicrobial Durability and Cost Efficiency
24.12 Environmental Impacts of Antimicrobials
24.13 Conclusions
References
Chapter 25: Nanostrategies Against Rising Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)-Metallic Nanoparticles as Nanoweapon
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Silver Nanoparticles
25.3 Copper Nanoparticles
25.4 Gold Nanoparticles
25.5 Conclusions
References
Index