Electrophysiological Analysis of Synaptic Transmission

Preface to the Series
Preface
Contents
Contributors
About the Editors
Part I: Basic Concepts
Chapter 1: Extracellular and Intracellular Recordings
1 Introduction
2 Multi-Cell (Multi-Unit) Recording (In Vitro)
2.1 Advantages/Disadvantages
2.2 Applications
3 Cell-Attached Patch
3.1 Advantages/Disadvantages
3.2 Applications
4 Intracellular Recording
4.1 Whole-Cell
4.1.1 Advantages/Disadvantages
4.1.2 Applications
4.2 Outside-Out (Cell-Free Patch)
4.2.1 Advantages/Disadvantages
4.2.2 Applications
4.3 Inside-Out (Cell-Free Patch)
4.3.1 Advantages/Disadvantages
4.3.2 Applications
4.4 Sharp Electrode Recording
4.4.1 Advantages/Disadvantages
4.4.2 Applications
5 Summary
References
Chapter 2: Electrical Theory
1 Introduction
2 Field Potentials (In Vitro)
3 Nernst Equation
4 Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation
5 Ionic Gradients Maintained
6 Field Potentials Along an Axon
7 Field Potentials at Synapses
8 Types of Fields
9 Postsynaptic Currents
10 Inward Versus Outward Current (Whole-Cell Configuration)
11 Current Rectification
12 Biological Capacitors
13 Electrophysiology Clamping Techniques
14 Summary
References
Chapter 3: Amplifiers
1 Introduction
2 Data Acquisition Frequency
3 Gain
4 Capacitance Compensation
5 Pipette Capacitance Compensation
6 Whole-Cell Capacitance Compensation
7 Series Resistance Compensation
8 Leak Subtraction
9 Junction Potential Compensation
10 Bath-Related Errors (Bath Error Potentials)
11 Ground-Related Error
12 Bridge Balance
13 Electrode
14 Electrode Circuit Headstage
15 Troubleshooting Noise
16 Filtering
17 Summary
References
Chapter 4: Salt Environment
1 Introduction
2 External Bath Solution
2.1 Typical Ionic Concentrations
3 Selection of Bath Solution
3.1 Cutting
3.2 Recovery
4 Internal Solution
4.1 ATP and GTP (Internal Containing ATP and GTP Must Be Kept on Ice Throughout the Experiment to Prevent Degradation)
4.2 Creatine/Phosphocreatine
4.3 Intracellular Protease Inhibitors (i.e., Leupeptin)
4.4 Cations
4.5 Anions
4.6 Ca2+ Chelators (BAPTA, EGTA, EDTA)
4.7 Additional Information
5 Solutions Used for Extracellular Field Recordings-Ex Vivo
6 Solutions for Patch Preparations
6.1 Cell-Attached Patch
6.2 Whole-Cell Patch
6.3 Inside-Out Patch
6.4 Outside-Out Patch
7 Pipette Offset
8 Troubleshooting
9 Summary
References
Chapter 5: Patch Pipettes (Micropipettes)
1 Introduction
2 Micropipette Material
3 Shape of the Micropipette
4 Filaments and Coils
5 Pulling Micropipettes
6 Fire-Polishing
7 Pipette Resistance
8 Electrode Holders
9 Pipette Drift (Mechanical)
10 Summary
11 Notes
References
Chapter 6: Spatiotemporal Effects of Synaptic Current
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Passive Membrane Responses to Localized Synaptic Input (Cable Filtering)
3 Empirically Derived Membrane Responses to Synaptic Inputs (Ex Vivo)
4 Hebbian Plasticity (Spike-Timing-Dependent Plasticity (STDP))
5 Space-Clamp Artifacts
6 Summary
References
Chapter 7: Perforated Patch
1 Introduction
2 Polyene Antibiotics
2.1 Problems with Polyene Antibiotics
3 Gramicidin D
4 β-Escin
5 Summary
References
Part II: Recording of Synaptic Current
Chapter 8: Isolation of Synaptic Current
1 Introduction
2 Miniature Postsynaptic Currents (mPSCs)
2.1 Technical Considerations
3 Spontaneous Postsynaptic Currents
4 Quantal Postsynaptic Currents (qPSCs)
4.1 Technical Approach
5 Evoked Postsynaptic Currents (ePSCs)
5.1 Electrical
5.1.1 Technical Considerations
5.2 Optical
6 Designer Receptors Exclusively Activated by Designer Drugs (DREADDs)
7 Nanoparticles
8 Summary
References
Chapter 9: Fast and Slow Synaptic Currents
1 Introduction
2 Chemical Synapses
2.1 Excitatory Synaptic Ionotropic-Mediated Currents
2.2 Inhibitory Synaptic Ionotropic-Mediated Currents
2.3 Technical Considerations When Measuring Synaptic Current Kinetics
2.4 Synaptic Currents Mediated by Metabotropic Receptors
3 Electrical Synapses
4 Summary
References
Chapter 10: Measuring Kinetics of Synaptic Current
1 Introduction
2 Measuring Synaptic Current Kinetics
2.1 Synaptic Current Rise Time
2.1.1 Technical Considerations for Calculating Rise Times
2.2 Synaptic Current Decay Time
3 Spectral Analysis (Noise Analysis)
4 Summary
References
Chapter 11: Measuring Presynaptic Release Probability
1 Introduction
2 Presynaptic Release Machinery
3 Probability of Release (Pr)
4 Measuring and Analyzing Release Probability
4.1 Paired-Pulse Protocol (Qualitative Measurement)
4.2 Multiple-Probability Fluctuation Analysis or Variance-Mean Analysis (Quantitative Measurement)
4.3 Technical Considerations
5 Summary
References
Chapter 12: Long-Term Measurements
1 Introduction
2 Long-Term Measurements
2.1 Long-Term Potentiation
2.2 Long-Term Depression (LTD)
2.3 Approach for Eliciting LTP or LTD
2.3.1 LTP
2.3.2 LTD
2.4 Identifying Mechanisms of LTP or LTD Using Electrophysiological Methods
2.5 Analysis and Interpretation
2.6 Technical Considerations
3 Summary
References
Chapter 13: Measuring Reversal Potentials
1 Introduction
2 Measuring Reversal Potential
3 Technical Considerations
4 Summary
References
Part III: Basic Experimentations of Synaptic Transmission
Chapter 14: Amplitude
1 Introduction
2 Amplitude Measurements
2.1 Action Potentials
2.2 Local Field Potentials (LFPs)
2.3 Current/Potential Amplitude (Intracellular Recordings)
2.4 Input Resistance
3 Technical Considerations
4 Summary
References
Chapter 15: Pre-vs. Post-synaptic Effect
1 Introduction
2 Presynaptic
2.1 Neurotransmitter Release
2.2 Variance-Mean (V-M) Analysis-Revisited
3 Postsynaptic
3.1 Intrinsic Membrane Excitability
3.2 Na+ Channels
3.3 Ca2+ Channels
3.4 K+ Channels
3.5 Hyperpolarization-Activated Cation Channels (HCN Channels)
3.6 Intrinsic Membrane Excitability EPSP-to-Spike (E-S) Plasticity
3.7 Intrinsic Membrane Excitability: Measurements
4 Summary
References
Chapter 16: Run-Up and Run-Down
1 Introduction
2 Run-Up
3 Run-Down
4 Summary
References
Chapter 17: Kinetics of Synaptic Current
1 Introduction
2 Excitatory Ionotropic Receptors
2.1 Non-NMDA (N-Methyl-d-Aspartate) Receptors
2.2 N-Methyl-d-Aspartate Receptors (NMDARs)
2.3 Neuronal Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors (nAChRs)
2.4 5-Hydroxytryptamine-3 Receptors (5-HT3Rs)
3 Purinergic P2X Receptors
4 Inhibitory Ionotropic Receptors
4.1 γ-Aminobutyric AcidA Receptors (GABAARs)
4.2 Glycine Receptors (GlyRs)
5 Summary
References
Part IV: Experimentations with Computational Components
Chapter 18: Measurement of a Single Synapse
1 Introduction
2 Approaches for Determining Currents Generated at a Single Synapse
2.1 Localized Perfusion Techniques
2.2 Localized Stimulation Techniques
2.3 Photostimulation
2.4 Imaging
2.5 Imaging Presynaptic Vesicles
3 Summary
4 Notes
References
Chapter 19: Measurement of Silent Synapses
1 Introduction
2 Silent Synapses
3 Measuring Silent Synapses
3.1 Coefficient of Variance Analysis (CV Analysis)
3.2 Minimal Stimulation Assay
4 Technical Considerations
5 Summary
References
Chapter 20: Dendritic Patch
1 Introduction
2 External and Internal Solutions
3 Equipment
4 Optimizing Optics
4.1 Adjusting DIC Optics (Conventional)
5 Procedure
6 Troubleshooting
7 Limitations to Dendritic Patch
8 Summary
References
Part V: Experimentations with Molecular and Visual Components
Chapter 21: Electrophysiological and Visual Tags
1 Introduction
2 Tags Used for Electrophysiology Experiments
2.1 Electrophysiological Tags
2.2 Postsynaptic Visual Tags
2.3 Presynaptic Visual Tags
3 Summary
References
Part VI: In Vivo Recordings
Chapter 22: Extracellular Recordings
1 Introduction
2 Electrical Theory Revisited
2.1 Synaptic
2.2 Intrinsic Currents
2.3 Calcium Spikes
2.4 Action Potentials
2.5 Afterhyperpolarization
2.6 Gap Junctions
2.7 Glia
2.8 Ephaptic Conduction
3 Types of Recordings
3.1 Electroencephalogram (EEG)
3.2 Electrocorticogram (ECoG)
3.3 Local Field Potential (LFP)
3.4 Whole Cell
4 Recording in Anesthetized Animals
5 Recording in Freely Moving Animals
6 Summary
References
Chapter 23: General Considerations for In Vivo Exploration of Synaptic Plasticity
1 Introduction
2 Comparative Advantages of In Vivo Electrophysiology
3 Considerations for In Vivo Recordings Based on Research Variables
4 Considerations for Dependent Variables
4.1 Duration of Recordings
4.2 Spatiotemporal Resolution of Intracellular Versus Extracellular Recordings
4.3 Precise Control of the Presynapse: Available Tools
5 Considerations for Independent Variables
6 Independent Variables Manipulated Prior to Recordings
7 Test Stimuli and Induction Protocols
8 Manipulating Independent Variables During Recording
9 Summary
References
Chapter 24: Technical Considerations for In Vivo Electrophysiology
1 Introduction
2 Locating the Target Regions
3 Cell Search Approaches
4 Choice of Electrodes
5 Electrical Stimulation and Alternative Methods
6 Choice of Anesthetics
7 Choice of Rodent Strains and Genetic Backgrounds
8 Issues of Chronic Recording
9 Considerations to Facilitate Analysis and to Reduce Interpretation Biases
9.1 Sample Size
9.2 Spike Sorting Techniques
9.3 Issue of Sampling Bias
10 Summary
References
Index