Early Life on Earth: Evolution, Diversification, and Interactions

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Author
Chapter 1 Space, Solar System, and the Earth
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Elements in the Universe and Their Origins
1.3 Evolution of Our Solar System
1.4 Evolution of the Earth’s Inner Structure
1.5 Origins of the Oceans and the Atmosphere
Column: Meteorite
References
Chapter 2 Solid Earth
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Plate Tectonics, Driving Force of Dynamism of the Earth
2.3 Igneous Rocks
2.3.1 Classification Scheme
2.3.2 Granitic Rocks (Granitoids)
2.3.3 Basaltic Rocks
2.4 Sedimentary Rocks
2.4.1 Volcaniclastic (Pyroclastic) Rocks
2.4.2 Terrigenous Clastic Rocks
2.4.2.1 Factors Controlling Chemistry and Mineralogy of Terrigenous Clastic Rocks
2.4.2.2 Sedimentary Structures of Terrigenous Clastic Rocks and Their Implications
2.4.3 Biogenic, Chemical, and Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
2.4.3.1 Biogenic Sedimentary Rocks
2.4.3.2 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
2.4.3.3 Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
2.5 Metamorphic Rocks
Column: Geochemistry of Igneous Rocks and of Magmatic Processes
References
Chapter 3 Life on the Earth 1
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Chemical Evolution and Emergence of Life on the Earth
3.2.1 Revisit to Miller’s Experiment
3.2.2 Delivery of Building Blocks of Life from Space
3.2.3 Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Systems and Origin of Life
3.2.4 Terrestrial Hydrothermal Systems (Hot Springs): Another Candidates for Birthplace of Life
3.3 Classification of Life on the Earth
3.4 Diversity in Metabolisms
3.4.1 Autotrophy and Heterotrophy
3.4.2 Chemistry of Autotrophy
3.4.3 Chemistry of Heterotrophy
3.5 Ecosystem: Complex System of Life and Environment
Column: Discovery of Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Systems
References
Chapter 4 Life on the Earth 2
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Carbon
4.2.1 Deep Carbon Cycle
4.2.2 Modern Surface Carbon Cycle
4.2.2.1 Terrestrial Carbon Cycle
4.2.2.2 Oceanic Carbon Cycle
4.2.2.3 Sediment Carbon Cycle
4.2.3 Archean Carbon Cycle
4.3 Sulfur
4.3.1 Modern Sulfur Cycle
4.3.2 Archean Sulfur Cycle
4.4 Nitrogen
4.4.1 Modern Nitrogen Cycle
4.4.2 Archean Nitrogen Cycle
4.5 Phosphorous
4.5.1 Modern Phosphorous Cycle
4.5.2 Archean Phosphorous Cycle
Column: Isotope and Isotope Fractionation
References
Chapter 5 Topics of the Early Precambrian Earth 1
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Archean Cratons
5.2.1 Distributions and Compositions of Archean Cratons
5.2.2 Origins of Archean Cratons
5.3 Early Continental Growth and Its Implications
5.3.1 Models of Continental Growth
5.3.2 Plate Tectonics and Continental Growth and Implications
5.4 Komatiite Volcanism and Its Significance
5.4.1 Komatiite and Its Origin
5.4.2 Serpentinization of Komatiite and Its Implications
5.5 Large Asteroid Impact and Its Implications
5.5.1 Paleo-and Mesoarchean Records of Asteroid Impacts
5.5.2 Identification of Large Asteroid Impacts
5.5.3 Implications of Large Asteroid Impacts
5.6 Archean Seawater Compositions and Products 1: Iron Formations
5.6.1 Clues to Archean Seawater Compositions
5.6.2 What Are Iron Formations?
5.6.3 Iron- Rich and Anoxic Deep Seawaters
5.6.4 Origins of Early to Mesoarchean Iron Formations
5.7 Archean Seawater Compositions and Products 2: Cherts
5.7.1 Silica and Chert
5.7.2 Archean Primary Cherts, Indicative of Silica- Rich Ocean
5.7.3 Formation Processes of Secondary Cherts
5.7.3.1 Hydrothermal Alteration of Oceanic Crusts
5.7.3.2 Syndepositional Silicification
5.7.3.3 Pervasive Silicification
5.7.3.4 Chert Formation and Element Remobilization
5.8 How Was the Earth’s Atmosphere Oxidized
5.8.1 Archean Atmosphere
5.8.2 Microbial Consumption and Production of H[sub(2)] and CH[sub(4)]
5.8.3 Hydrogen Escape
5.8.4 Archean Ocean Temperature and pH
5.8.4.1 Temperature: Hot or Temperate?
5.8.4.2 Acidic, Neutral, or Alkaline?
Column: Zircon, Windows to the Hadean (4.6–4.0 Ga)
References
Chapter 6 Topics of the Early Precambrian Earth 2
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Photosynthesis and Its Evolution
6.2.1 Anoxygenic and Oxygenic Photosynthesis
6.2.2 Oxygenic Photosynthesis: Energetic and Physiological Perspective
6.2.3 Oxygenic Photosynthesis: Nutritional Perspective
6.3 Geochemical and Mineralogical Records of the Great Oxidation Event (GOE) and Earlier Oxygenation
6.3.1 Occurrrences of Redox- Sensitive Minerals and Related Sediments
6.3.1.1 Uraninite, Pyrite, and Siderite
6.3.1.2 Red Beds
6.3.2 Black Shales and Molybdenum
6.3.3 Paleosol, Clue to Oxygen in the Atmosphere and Implications?
6.3.3.1 Concept of Paleosol Geochemistry
6.3.3.2 Classical Controversy on Paleosol Records
6.3.3.3 Recent Controversies on Archean Oxygenic Atmosphere and Isotopic Approach to Paleosol
6.3.4 Identification of Sulfur Mass-Independent Isotopic Fractionation (S-MIF)
6.4 Sedimentary Records of Oxygenic Photosynthesis: Stromatolite and MISS
Column: Oxygen is a Double-Edged Sword
References
Chapter 7 Biosignatures in Ancient Rocks and Related Issues
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Organic Matter
7.2.1 Kerogen and Its Isotopic Compositions
7.2.2 Hydrocarbons and Others – Archean Oils
7.3 Pyrite and Sulfur
7.4 Sedimentary Structures and Deposits
7.4.1 Microbially- Induced Sedimentary Structures
7.4.2 Stromatolites
7.4.2.1 What are Stromatolites?
7.4.2.2 Skepticisms to Archean Stromatolites
7.4.2.3 The Oldest Stromatolites? – The 3.4 Ga-old Strelley Pool Formation
7.4.2.4 The Oldest Stromatolites? – The 3.5 Ga Dresser Formation
7.5 Ichnofossils in Volcanic Rocks
7.6 Systematic Approach to Biogenicity Assessment of Cell-Like Structures
7.6.1 Geological Context
7.6.2 Syngenicity
7.6.3 Biological Context: Size and Its Range
7.6.4 Biological Context: Shape
7.6.5 Biological Context: Occurrence
7.6.6 Biological Context: Taphonomy
7.6.7 Biological Context: Chemical and Isotopic Compositions
Column: Biofilm
References
Chapter 8 Early (Paleo- to Meso-) Archean Cellularly Preserved Biosignatures
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Isua Supracrustal Belt, Greenland (Denmark)
8.2.1 Geological Background
8.2.2 Cellularly Preserved Biosignatures
8.3 The Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt, Canada
8.3.1 Geological Background
8.3.2 Cellularly Preserved Biosignature
8.4 Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa
8.4.1 The Onverwacht Group
8.4.1.1 The Hoogenoeg Formation
8.4.1.2 The Kromberg Formation
8.4.2 The Fig Tree Group
8.4.3 The Moodies Group
8.5 Pilbara Craton, Western Australia
8.5.1 The Warrawoona Group
8.5.1.1 The Dresser Formation
8.5.1.2 The Mount Ada Basalt
8.5.1.3 The Apex Basalt
8.5.1.4 The Panorama Formation
8.5.2 The Strelley Pool Formation
8.5.3 The Sulfur Springs Group
8.5.4 The Gorge Creek Group and Others
8.5.4.1 The Farrel Quartzite
8.5.4.2 The Dixon Island Formation (Not Official)
Column: Rare-Earth Elements and Significance of Shale (PAAS)-Normalization
References
Chapter 9 Overview of the Pilbara Microstructures 1: The Farrel Quartzite Assemblage
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Local Geology and Lithostratigraphy of the Goldsworthy Greenstone Belt
9.2.1 Local Geology
9.2.2 Overview of Lithostratigraphy
9.3 Siliciclastic Unit (The Farrel Quartzite)
9.3.1 Assignment to the Farrel Quartzite – Its Story and Remained Problem
9.3.2 Lithostratigraphy and Sedimentary Geology
9.3.3 Sources of Detrital Materials
9.3.4 Detailed Descriptions of CE2
9.3.4.1 Lithostratigraphy
9.3.4.2 Petrography of Black Chert
9.3.4.3 Rare- Earth Elements and Y Geochemistry
9.4 The Chert- BIF Unit (The Cleaverville Formation)
9.4.1 Lithostratigraphy and Petrography
9.4.2 Rare-Earth Elements and Y Geochemistry
9.5 Evolution of the Depositional Basin of the Farrel Quartzite – The Cleaverville Formation
9.5.1 Lithostratigraphic Constraints
9.5.2 Trace Element Constraints
9.5.3 Depositional Environment of the Black Chert in CE2
9.6 Fossil- Like Microstructures
9.6.1 Spheroids
9.6.1.1 Small Spheroids
9.6.1.2 Large Spheroids
9.6.2 Lenses
9.6.3 Films
9.6.4 Filaments
Column: Evaporite
References
Chapter 10 Overview of the Pilbara Microstructures 2: The Strelley Pool Formation Assemblage
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Panorama Greenstone Belt
10.2.1 Local Geology and Lithostratigraphy
10.2.2 Panorama Locality 1
10.2.2.1 Lithostratigraphy and Petrography
10.2.2.2 Fossil-Like Microstructures
10.2.3 Panorama Locality 2
10.2.3.1 Lithostratigraphy and Petrography
10.2.3.2 Fossil-Like Microstructures
10.2.4 Depositional Environment
10.3 The Warralong Greenstone Belt
10.3.1 Local Geology and Lithostratigraphy
10.3.2 Petrography of Gray-Black Chert
10.3.3 Depositional Environment
10.3.4 Fossil-Like Microstructures
10.4 The Goldsworthy Greenstone Belt
10.4.1 Local Geology and Lithostratigraphy
10.4.2 Lithofacies and Petrography of the Uppermost Cherty Unit
10.4.3 Depositional Environment of the Uppermost Cherty Unit
10.4.4 Fossil-Like Microstructures in the Massive Black Cherts
10.4.4.1 Spheroids
10.4.4.2 Lenses
10.4.4.3 Filaments and Films
10.4.5 Minor Occurrences of Fossil-Like Microstructures
Column: Siliceous Sinter
References
Chapter 11 Biogenicity of the Pilbara Microstructures
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Geologic Context 1: Ages of Rocks
11.2.1 The Farrel Quartzite
11.2.2 The Strelley Pool Formation
11.3 Geologic Context 2: Sedimentary Origin of Host Cherts
11.4 Geologic Context 3: Primary Origin of Host Cherts
11.5 Syngenicity
11.6 Biogenicity
11.6.1 Films
11.6.2 Filaments
11.6.3 Small Spheroids
11.6.4 Large Spheroids
11.6.4.1 Flexible- Walled Large Spheroids
11.6.4.2 Robust and Thick- Walled Large Spherical Spheroid
11.6.4.3 Robust- Walled Large Oblate Spheroids
11.6.4.4 Robust and Thin- Walled Large Spherical Spheroids: The FQ Assemblage
11.6.4.5 Robust and Thin- Walled Large Spherical Spheroids: The SPF Assemblage
11.6.5 Lenses
11.7 Refuting Objections
11.7.1 Are Lenticular Microstructures Volcanic Vesicles or Those Microbially Colonized?
11.7.1.1 Descriptions of Wacey’s Volcanic Vesicles Mimicking Microfossils
11.7.1.2 Lenticular Microfossils Are Not Originated from Volcanic Vesicles
11.7.1.3 Dresser Vesicles May Be Lenticular Microfossils
11.7.2 Does the Farrel Quartzite Microfossil Assemblage Represent Soil Communities?
11.7.2.1 Ambiguity of the Examined Locality
11.7.2.2 Ambiguity of the Examined Materials
11.7.2.3 Misunderstanding of Previous Studies and Incorrect Citations
Column: Acritarchs
References
Chapter 12 Lifecycle and Mode of Life of the Pilbara Microfossils
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Reproduction Styles, Life Cycle, and Colony of Modern Microbes
12.2.1 Alternative Reproduction Styles to Binary Fissions
12.2.2 Morphological Change of Cells
12.2.3 Morphology of Colonies
12.3 Films
12.4 Filaments
12.5 Small Spheroids
12.6 Large Spheroids
12.6.1 Flexible-Walled Large Spheroids
12.6.2 Robust and Thin-Walled Large Spherical Spheroids and Robust-walled Large Oblate Spheroid
12.7 Lenses
12.7.1 Variations in Morphology, Texture, and Colony
12.7.1.1 Area, Oblateness, and Flange Width
12.7.1.2 Symmetricity vs. Asymmetricity and Distortion
12.7.1.3 Flange Fabrics
12.7.1.4 Architectures of Colony
12.7.2 Lifecycle and Reproduction Styles of Lenticular Microbes
12.7.2.1 Simple Life Cycle with Binary Fission
12.7.2.2 Multiple Fission with Baeocyte Formation
12.7.2.3 Possible Asymmetric Division
12.7.3 Morphometrics of Lenticular Microfossils
12.7.3.1 Methodology
12.7.3.2 Results of Morphometric Analyses
12.7.3.3 Morphological Variations – Cell Growth and Taphonomy?
12.7.3.4 Environmental Adaptation and Speciation of Lenticular Microbes
12.7.4 Planktonic Mode of Life of Lenticular Microbes
12.7.4.1 Methodology
12.7.4.2 Parameters of Virtual Cells
12.7.4.3 Sedimentation Simulation
12.7.4.4 Effect of Flange and Flange Thickness
12.7.4.5 Effect of Oblateness
12.7.4.6 Summary
Column: Thiomargarita and Big Bacteria
References
Chapter 13 Facts and Problems of the Pilbara Microfossils and Related Issues
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Cyanobacterial Microfossils in the Early Precambrian
13.2.1 Records of Described Possible Cyanobacterial Microfossils
13.2.2 Criteria for Cyanobacterial Microfossils
13.3 Eukaryotic Fossils in the Early Precambrian
13.3.1 Records of Eukaryotic Microfossils
13.3.2 Criteria for Eukaryotic Microfossils
13.3.3 Records of Eukaryotic Macrofossils
13.4 Interpretation of the Pilbara Microfossil Assemblages
13.4.1 Biological Affinity of Spheroid Microfossils
13.4.2 Biological Affinity and Survival Strategy of Lenticular Microbes
13.4.2.1 Possibility of Eukaryotic Affinities
13.4.2.2 Survival Strategy and Evolutionary Ecology of Lenticular Microbes
13.5 Future Directions of the Pilbara Microfossils
13.5.1 Reexamination of Vertically to Subvertically Oriented Columnar Giant Crystals
13.5.2 Potential of Biomarker Analyses of Microfossils
13.5.3 Taxonomy of the Lenticular Microfossils and Life History of Lenticular Microbes
Column: Endosymbiotic Theory
References
Index