Discovering the Universe

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents Overview
Contents
Preface
About the Author
PART I: Understanding the Science of Astronomy
CHAPTER 1: Discovering the Night Sky
SCALES OF THE UNIVERSE
1-1 Astronomical distances are, well, astronomical
PATTERNS OF STARS
1-2 Well-known constellations make locating more obscure stars and constellations easy
1-3 The celestial sphere aids in navigating the sky
GUIDED DISCOVERY The Stars and Constellations
1-4 An “alt”ernative coordinate system
1-5 Earth orbits the Sun in a plane called the ecliptic
EARTHLY CYCLES
1-6 Earth’s rotation creates the day-night cycle and its revolution defines a year
AN ASTRONOMER’S TOOLBOX 1-1 Observational Measurements Using Angles
1-7 The seasons result from the tilt of Earth’s rotation axis combined with Earth’s revolution around the Sun
1-8 Clock times based on the Sun’s location created scheduling nightmares
1-9 Calendars based on equal-length years also created scheduling problems
1-10 Precession is a slow, circular motion of Earth’s axis of rotation
1-11 The phases of the Moon originally inspired the concept of the month
ECLIPSES
1-12 Eclipses do not occur during every new or full Moon phase
1-13 Three types of lunar eclipse occur
1-14 Three types of solar eclipse also occur
1-15 Frontiers yet to be discovered
Summary of Key Ideas
WHAT IF... Earth’s Axis Lay on the Ecliptic?
CHAPTER 2: Gravitation and the Motion of the Planets
SCIENCE: KEY TO COMPREHENDING THE COSMOS
2-1 Science is both a body of knowledge and a process of learning about nature
CHANGING OUR EARTH-CENTERED VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE
2-2 The belief in a Sun-centered cosmology formed slowly
GUIDED DISCOVERY Earth-Centered Universe
2-3 Copernicus devised the first comprehensive heliocentric cosmology
GUIDED DISCOVERY Astronomy’s Foundation Builders
2-4 Tycho Brahe made astronomical observations that disproved ancient ideas about the heavens
KEPLER’S AND NEWTON’S LAWS
2-5 Kepler’s laws describe orbital shapes, changing speeds, and the lengths of planetary years
2-6 Galileo’s discoveries strongly supported a heliocentric cosmology
AN ASTRONOMER’S TOOLBOX 2-1 Units of Astronomical Distance
2-7 Newton formulated three laws that describe fundamental properties of physical reality
AN ASTRONOMER’S TOOLBOX 2-2 Energy and Momentum
2-8 Newton’s description of gravity accounts for Kepler’s laws
AN ASTRONOMER’S TOOLBOX 2-3 Gravitational Force
2-9 Orbiting bodies orbit a common center of mass
2-10 Ellipses are not the only paths followed by gravitationally interacting objects
2-11 Frontiers yet to be discovered
Summary Of Key Ideas
CHAPTER 3: Light and Telescopes
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION OBSERVATORIES
3-1 Newton discovered that white is not a fundamental color and proposed that light is composed of particles
3-2 Light travels at a finite but incredibly fast speed
3-3 Einstein showed that light sometimes behaves as particles that carry energy
AN ASTRONOMER’S TOOLBOX 3-1 Photon Energies, Wavelengths, and Frequencies
3-4 Visible light is only one type of electromagnetic radiation
OPTICS AND TELESCOPES
3-5 Reflecting telescopes use mirrors to concentrate incoming starlight
3-6 Secondary mirrors dim objects but do not create holes in them
3-7 Telescopes brighten, resolve, and magnify
3-8 Eyepieces, refracting telescopes, and binoculars use lenses to focus incoming light
3-9 Shaping telescope mirrors and lenses is an evolving science
3-10 Storing and analyzing light from space is key to understanding the cosmos
3-11 Earth’s atmosphere hinders astronomical research
3-12 The Hubble Space Telescope provides stunning details about the universe
3-13 Advanced technology is spawning a new generation of superb ground-based telescopes
NONOPTICAL ASTRONOMY
3-14 A radio telescope uses a large concave dish to collect radio waves
3-15 Infrared and ultraviolet telescopes also use reflectors to collect electromagnetic radiation
3-16 X-ray and gamma-ray telescopes cannot use normal reflectors to gather information
COSMIC RAY OBSERVATORIES
3-17 Cosmic rays are not rays at all
NEUTRINO OBSERVATORIES
3-18 The mystery of the missing neutrinos inspired development of telescopes to detect these elusive particles
GRAVITATIONAL WAVE OBSERVATORIES
3-19 Gravitational radiation observatories provide insights into very violent activities, such as the collisions of stellar remnants
3-20 Frontiers yet to be discovered
Summary of Key Ideas
WHAT IF... Humans Had Infrared-Sensitive Eyes?
CHAPTER 4: Atomic Physics and Spectra
BLACKBODY RADIATION
4-1 An object’s peak color shifts to shorter wavelengths as it is heated
4-2 The intensities of different emitted colors reveal a star’s temperature
AN ASTRONOMER’S TOOLBOX 4-1 The Radiation Laws
GUIDED DISCOVERY The Color of the Sun
IDENTIFYING THE ELEMENTS BY ANALYZING THEIR UNIQUE SPECTRA
4-3 Each chemical element produces its own unique set of spectral lines
4-4 The various brightness levels of spectral lines depend on conditions in the spectrum’s source
ATOMS AND SPECTRA
4-5 An atom consists of a small, dense nucleus surrounded by electrons
AN ASTRONOMER’S TOOLBOX 4-2 Radioactivity and the Ages of Objects
4-6 Spectra occur because electrons absorb and emit photons with only certain wavelengths
4-7 Spectral lines shift due to the relative motion between the source and the observer
AN ASTRONOMER’S TOOLBOX 4-3 The Doppler Shift
4-8 Frontiers yet to be discovered
Summary of Key Ideas
PART II: Understanding the Solar System and Exoplanets
CHAPTER 5: Exoplanets and the Formation of Planetary Systems
EXOPLANETS—PLANETS OUTSIDE OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
PLANETS CONTAIN HEAVY ELEMENTS, FORMED IN EARLIER GENERATIONS OF STARS
5-1 Stars transform matter from lighter elements into heavier ones
5-2 Gravity, rotation, collisions, and heat shape young star systems
5-3 Protoplanetary disks are a common part of the star-forming process
5-4 Astronomers have many different ways of detecting planets outside our solar system
METHODS OF DETECTING EXOPLANETS
5-5 Exoplanets orbit a breathtaking variety of stars
5-6 Exoplanets with a wide range of sizes, masses, and compositions have been observed
5-7 Stars with multiple exoplanets have been observed
5-8 Many exoplanets have extraordinary orbits, as compared to those in our solar system
5-9 Exoplanets that are not orbiting stars have also been observed
5-10 There are billions and billions of exoplanets
5-11 Exoplanets with liquid water are being discovered
5-12 Frontiers yet to be explored
Summary of Key Ideas
MEET THE DISCOVERERS Dr. John Johnson
CHAPTER 6: Formation of the Solar System
THE SOLAR SYSTEM CONTAINS HEAVY ELEMENTS, FORMED FROM AN EARLIER GENERATION OF STARS
6-1 The Nice model of the formation of the solar system
THE FORMATION OF THE PLANETS
6-2 The giant planets formed in sequence
6-3 The inner planets formed primarily from collisions
6-4 The changing orbits of the giant planets caused Uranus and Neptune to spiral out
6-5 The solar system had, and still has, a lot of orbiting debris
6-6 The asteroid belt is also leftover debris
6-7 The infalling debris from the giant planets led to the Late Heavy Bombardment
CATEGORIES OF THE PRESENT-DAY SOLAR SYSTEM
6-8 The categories of solar system objects have evolved
6-9 The orbits of the planets are related
6-10 The Sun developed while the planets matured
COMPARATIVE PLANETOLOGY
6-11 Comparisons among the eight planets show distinct similarities and significant differences
6-12 How does the solar system compare to star systems with known exoplanets?
6-13 Frontiers yet to be discovered
Summary of Key Ideas
CHAPTER 7: Earth and the Moon
EARTH: A DYNAMIC, VITAL WORLD
7-1 Earth’s atmosphere has evolved over billions of years
7-2 Plate tectonics produce major changes on Earth’s surface
7-3 Earth’s interior consists of a rocky mantle and an iron-rich core
7-4 Earth’s magnetic field shields us from the solar wind
THE MOON AND TIDES
7-5 The Moon’s surface is covered with craters, plains, and mountains
7-6 Visits to the Moon yielded invaluable information about its history
7-7 The Moon may have formed from debris cast into space when a huge planetesimal struck the young Earth
7-8 Tides have played several important roles in the history of Earth and the Moon
7-9 The Moon is moving away from Earth
GUIDED DISCOVERY Tides
7-10 Frontiers yet to be discovered
SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS
WHAT IF... The Moon Didn’t Exist?
CHAPTER 8: The Other Terrestrial Planets
MERCURY
8-1 Photographs from Mariner 10 and MESSENGER spacecraft reveal Mercury’s lunarlike surface
8-2 Mercury has a higher percentage of iron than Earth
8-3 Mercury’s rotation and revolution are coupled
8-4 Mercury’s atmosphere is the thinnest of all terrestrial planets
VENUS
8-5 The surface of Venus is completely hidden beneath a permanent cloud cover
GUIDED DISCOVERY The Inner Solar System
8-6 The greenhouse effect heats Venus’s surface
8-7 Venus is covered with gently rolling hills, two “continents,” and numerous volcanoes
MARS
8-8 Mars’s global features include plains, canyons, craters, and volcanoes
8-9 Although no canals exist on Mars, it does have some curious natural features
8-10 Mars’s interior is less molten than the inside of Earth
8-11 Martian air is thin and often filled with dust
8-12 Surface and underground features indicate that water once flowed and may still flow in small quantities on Mars
8-13 Search for microscopic life on Mars continues
8-14 Mars’s two moons look more like potatoes than spheres
COMPARATIVE PLANETOLOGY OF THE INNER PLANETS
8-15 Comparisons of planetary features provide new insights
8-16 Frontiers yet to be discovered
Summary of Key Ideas
MEET THE DISCOVERERS Dr. Briony Horgan
CHAPTER 9: The Outer Planets
JUPITER
9-1 Jupiter’s outer layer is a dynamic area of storms and turbulent gases
9-2 Our understanding of Jupiter’s interior is in flux
9-3 Impacts provide probes into Jupiter’s atmosphere
JUPITER’S MOONS AND RINGS
9-4 Io’s surface is sculpted by volcanic activity
9-5 Europa harbors liquid water below its surface
9-6 Ganymede is larger than Mercury
9-7 Callisto bears the scars of a huge asteroid impact
9-8 Other debris orbits Jupiter as smaller moons and ringlets
SATURN
9-9 Saturn’s atmosphere, surface, and interior are similar to those of Jupiter
9-10 Saturn’s spectacular rings are composed of fragments of ice and ice-coated rock
9-11 Titan has a thick atmosphere, clouds, and lakes filled with liquids
9-12 Rhea has ice
9-13 Enceladus has water jets, an atmosphere, and a magnetic field
URANUS
9-14 Uranus sports a hazy atmosphere and clouds
9-15 A system of rings and satellites revolves around Uranus
NEPTUNE
9-16 Neptune was discovered because it had to be there
9-17 Neptune has rings and captured moons
COMPARATIVE PLANETOLOGY OF THE OUTER PLANETS
9-18 Frontiers yet to be discovered
Summary Of Key Ideas
WHAT IF... We Lived on a Metal-Poor Earth?
CHAPTER 10: Vagabonds of the Solar System
DWARF PLANETS
10-1 Pluto and its moon, Charon, are about the same size
10-2 Ceres is a dwarf planet in the asteroid belt, while Pluto, Eris, Haumea, and Makemake are trans-Neptunian objects as well as dwarf planets
SMALL SOLAR SYSTEM BODIES
ASTEROIDS
10-3 Most asteroids orbit the Sun between Mars and Jupiter
10-4 Jupiter’s gravity creates gaps in the asteroid belt
10-5 Asteroids also orbit outside the asteroid belt
COMETS
10-6 Comets come from far out in the solar system
10-7 Comet tails develop from gases and dust pushed outward by the Sun
10-8 Comets are fragile yet durable
10-9 Comets do not last forever
METEOROIDS, METEORS, AND METEORITES
10-10 Small, rocky debris peppers the solar system
10-11 Meteorites are space debris that land intact
10-12 The Allende meteorite provides evidence of catastrophic explosions
10-13 Asteroid impacts with Earth have caused mass extinctions
10-14 Frontiers yet to be discovered
Summary of Key Ideas
MEET THE DISCOVERERS Dr. Cristina Thomas
CHAPTER 11: The Sun: Our Extraordinary Ordinary Star
THE SUN’S ATMOSPHERE
11-1 The photosphere is the visible layer of the Sun
11-2 The chromosphere is characterized by spikes of gas called spicules
11-3 The outermost layer of the Sun’s atmosphere, the corona, is exceptionally hot
11-4 The solar wind produces the heliosphere that surrounds the solar system
THE ACTIVE SUN
11-5 Sunspots reveal the solar cycle and the Sun’s rotation
11-6 The Sun’s magnetic fields create sunspots
11-7 Solar magnetic fields also create other atmospheric phenomena
THE SUN’S INTERIOR
11-8 Thermonuclear reactions in the core of the Sun produce its energy
11-9 The solar model describes how energy escapes from the Sun’s core
11-10 The Sun has gotten brighter over time
AN ASTRONOMER’S TOOLBOX 11-1 Thermonuclear Fusion
11-11 Neutrinos from the Sun and other sources are providing new insights into high-energy activity in space
11-12 Frontiers yet to be discovered
Summary of Key Ideas
PART III: Understanding the Stars
CHAPTER 12: Characterizing Stars
12-1 Distances to nearby stars are found using stellar parallax
AN ASTRONOMER’S TOOLBOX 12-1 Distances to Nearby Stars
AN ASTRONOMER’S TOOLBOX 12-2 Details of the Magnitude Scales
MAGNITUDE SCALES
12-2 Apparent magnitude measures the brightness of stars as seen from Earth
12-3 Absolute magnitudes and luminosities do not depend on distance
GUIDED DISCOVERY Star Names
AN ASTRONOMER’S TOOLBOX 12-3 The Distance- Magnitude Relationship
THE TEMPERATURES OF STARS
12-4 A star’s color reveals its surface temperature
12-5 A star’s spectrum also reveals its surface temperature
12-6 Stars are classified by their spectra
TYPES OF STARS
12-7 The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram identifies distinct groups of stars
12-8 Luminosity classes set the stage for understanding stellar evolution
12-9 A star’s spectral type and luminosity class provide a second distance-measuring technique
STELLAR MASSES
12-10 Binary stars provide information about stellar masses
AN ASTRONOMER’S TOOLBOX 12-4 Kepler’s Third Law and Stellar Masses
12-11 Main-sequence stars have a relationship between mass and luminosity
12-12 The orbital motion of binary stars affects the wavelengths of their spectral lines
12-13 Frontiers yet to be discovered
Summary of Key Ideas
CHAPTER 13: The Lives of Stars from Birth Through Middle Age
PROTOSTARS AND PRE–MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS
13-1 Gas and dust exist between the stars
13-2 Supernovae, collisions of interstellar clouds, and starlight trigger new star formation
GUIDED DISCOVERY Observing the Nebulae
13-3 When a protostar ceases to accumulate mass, it becomes a pre–main-sequence star
13-4 The evolutionary track of a pre–main-sequence star depends on its mass
GUIDED DISCOVERY Extrasolar Planets and Brown Dwarfs
13-5 H II regions harbor young star clusters
13-6 Plotting a star cluster on an H-R diagram reveals its age
MAIN-SEQUENCE AND GIANT STARS
13-7 Stars spend most of their lives on the main sequence
EVOLUTION OF STARS WITH MASSES BETWEEN 0.08 M⊙ AND 0.4 M⊙
13-8 Red dwarfs convert essentially their entire mass into helium
EARLY AND MIDDLE EVOLUTION OF STARS WITH MORE THAN 0.4 M⊙
13-9 When core hydrogen fusion slows down, a main-sequence star with mass greater than 0.4 M⊙ becomes a giant
13-10 Helium fusion begins at the center of a giant
13-11 Life in the giant phase has its ups and downs
VARIABLE STARS
13-12 A Cepheid pulsates because it is alternately expanding and contracting
13-13 Cepheids enable astronomers to estimate vast distances
13-14 Globular clusters are bound groups of old stars
13-15 Mass transfer in close binary systems can produce unusual double stars
13-16 Frontiers yet to be discovered
Summary of Key Ideas
WHAT IF... Earth Orbited a 1.5-M⊙ Sun?
CHAPTER 14: The Deaths of Stars
LOW-MASS (0.4 M⊙–8 M⊙) STARS AND PLANETARY NEBULAE
14-1 Low-mass stars become supergiants before expanding into planetary nebulae
14-2 The burned-out core of a low-mass star becomes a white dwarf
14-3 White dwarfs in close binary systems can create powerful explosions
14-4 Accreting white dwarfs in close binary systems can also explode as Type Ia supernovae
HIGH-MASS (GREATER THAN 8 M⊙) STARS AND TYPE II SUPERNOVAE
14-5 A series of fusion reactions in high-mass stars leads to luminous supergiants
14-6 High-mass stars blow apart in Type II supernova explosions
14-7 Supernova remnants are observed in many places
14-8 Supernova 1987A offered a detailed look at a massive star’s death
14-9 Cosmic rays are not rays at all
NEUTRON STARS AND PULSARS
14-10 The cores of many Type II supernovae become neutron stars
14-11 A rotating magnetic field explains the pulses from a neutron star
14-12 Rotating neutron stars create other phenomena besides normal pulsars
14-13 Neutron stars have internal structure
14-14 Some pulsars are in binary systems
14-15 Superluminous supernovae are much brighter than either Type Ia or Type II supernovae
14-16 Supernova impostors
14-17 Fast radio bursts
14-18 Colliding neutron stars provide most of the heavy elements in the universe
14-19 Binary neutron stars create pulsating X-ray sources
14-20 Neutron stars in binary systems can also emit powerful isolated bursts of X-rays
14-21 Frontiers yet to be discovered
Summary of Key Ideas
WHAT IF... A Supernova Exploded Near Earth?
MEET THE DISCOVERERS Dr. Anna Frebel
CHAPTER 15: Black Holes: Matters of Gravity
THE RELATIVITY THEORIES
15-1 Special relativity changes our conception of space and time
15-2 General relativity explains how matter warps spacetime, thereby creating gravitational attraction
15-3 Spacetime affects the behavior of light
15-4 General relativity predicts the fate of massive stellar cores—black holes
AN ASTRONOMER’S TOOLBOX 15-1 The Sizes of Black Holes
INSIDE A BLACK HOLE
15-5 Matter in a black hole becomes much simpler than elsewhere in the universe
15-6 Falling into a black hole is an infinite voyage
GRAVITATIONAL RADIATION
FURTHER EVIDENCE FOR BLACK HOLES
15-7 Several binary star systems contain black holes
15-8 Other black holes range in mass up to billions of solar masses
GUIDED DISCOVERY Identifying Stellar-Remnant Black Holes
15-9 Black holes and neutron stars in binary systems often create jets of gas
15-10 Black holes evaporate
GAMMA-RAY BURSTS
15-11 Gamma-ray bursts are the most powerful explosions in the known universe
15-12 Frontiers yet to be discovered
Summary of Key Ideas
MEET THE DISCOVERER Dr. Scott A. Hughes
PART IV: Understanding the Universe
CHAPTER 16: The Milky Way Galaxy
DEFINING THE MILKY WAY
16-1 Studies of Cepheid variable stars revealed that the Milky Way is only one of many galaxies
AN ASTRONOMER’S TOOLBOX 16-1 Cepheids and Type Ia Supernovae as Indicators of Distance
THE STRUCTURE OF OUR GALAXY AND OUR PLACE IN IT
16-2 Cepheid variables help us locate our Galaxy’s center
16-3 Nonvisible observations help map the galactic disk
16-4 The Milky Way has a global magnetic field
16-5 The galactic nucleus is an active, crowded place
16-6 Our Galaxy’s disk is surrounded by a two-shell spherical halo of stars and other matter
16-7 The Galaxy is rotating
MYSTERIES AT THE GALACTIC FRINGES
16-8 Most of the matter in the Galaxy has not yet been identified
16-9 Frontiers yet to be discovered
Summary of Key Ideas
CHAPTER 17: Galaxies
TYPES OF GALAXIES
17-1 For many spiral galaxies, the winding of their spiral arms is correlated to the size of a central bulge
17-2 Explosions create flocculent spirals, and waves create grand-design spirals
17-3 Bars of stars run through the central bulges of barred spiral galaxies, and some disk galaxies, the lenticulars, lack spiral arms
17-4 Elliptical galaxies display a wide variety of sizes and masses
17-5 Galaxies without global structure are called irregular
17-6 Hubble presented spiral and elliptical galaxies in a tuning fork-shaped diagram
17-7 Galaxies built up in size over time
CLUSTERS AND SUPERCLUSTERS
17-8 Galaxies exist in clusters, which are clustered in larger clumps called superclusters
17-9 Clusters of galaxies may appear densely or sparsely populated and regular or irregular in shape
17-10 Galaxies in a cluster can collide and combine
17-11 Dark matter helps hold together individual galaxies and clusters of galaxies
SUPERCLUSTERS IN MOTION
17-12 The redshifts of superclusters indicate that the universe is indeed expanding
GUIDED DISCOVERY The Tully–Fisher Relation and Other Distance-Measuring Techniques
17-13 Astronomers are looking back to a time when galaxies were first forming
AN ASTRONOMER’S TOOLBOX 17-1 The Hubble–Lemaître Law
GUIDED DISCOVERY The Expanding Universe
17-14 Frontiers yet to be discovered
SUMMARY OF KEY iDEAS
WHAT iF... The Solar System Were Located Closer to the Center of the Galaxy?
MEET THE DISCOVERERS Dr. Kartik Sheth
CHAPTER 18: Quasars and Other Active Galaxies
QUASARS
18-1 Quasars look like stars but have huge redshifts
18-2 A quasar emits a huge amount of energy from a small volume
OTHER ACTiVE GALAxiES
18-3 Active galaxies can be either spiral or elliptical
SUPERMASSiVE ENGiNES
18-4 Supermassive black holes exist at the centers of most galaxies
18-5 Jets of protons and electrons ejected from around black holes explain quasars, Seyfert galaxies, radio galaxies, double-radio sources, and BL Lacertae objects
18-6 Gravity focuses light from quasars
18-7 Fast radio bursts
18-8 Frontiers yet to be discovered
Summary of Key ideas
CHAPTER 19: Cosmology
THE BIG BANG
19-1 General relativity predicts an expanding (or contracting) universe
19-2 The expansion of the universe creates a Dopplerlike redshift
19-3 The Hubble constant is related to the age of the universe
AN ASTRONOMER’S TOOLBOX 19-1 Ho and the Age of the Universe
19-4 Remnants of the Big Bang have been detected
19-5 The universe has two symmetries—isotropy and homogeneity
A BRiEF HiSTORY OF SPACETiME, MATTER, ENERGY, AND EVERYTHiNG
19-6 All physical forces in nature were initially unified
19-7 Equations explain the evolution of the universe, even before matter and energy, as we know them, existed
19-8 Homogeneity and isotropy are results of inflation
19-9 During the first second, most of the matter and antimatter in the universe annihilated each other
19-10 The universe changed from being controlled by radiation to being controlled by matter
19-11 Galaxies formed from huge clouds of primordial gas
19-12 Star formation activity determines a galaxy’s initial structure
THE FATE OF THE UNiVERSE
19-13 The average density of matter is one factor that determines the future of the universe
19-14 The overall shape of spacetime affects the future of the universe
19-15 Dark energy is causing the universe to accelerate outward
GUIDED DISCOVERY Superstring Theory and M-Theory
19-16 Frontiers yet to be discovered
Summary of Key ideas
MEET THE DISCOVERERS Dr. Yun Wang
CHAPTER 20: Astrobiology
20-1 Astrobiology connects the cosmos and the origins of life
20-2 The existence of life depends on chemical and physical properties of matter
20-3 Evidence is mounting that life might exist elsewhere in our solar system
20-4 Searches for advanced civilizations try to detect their radio signals
20-5 The Drake equation: How many civilizations are likely to exist in the Milky Way?
20-6 Humans have been sending signals into space for more than a century
20-7 Frontiers yet to be discovered
Summary of Key Ideas
MEET THE DISCOVERERS Dr. Magdelena Osburn
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: Powers-of-Ten Notation
APPENDIX B: Guidelines for Solving Math Problems and Reading Graphs
APPENDIX C: Key Formulas
APPENDIX D: Temperature Scales
APPENDIX E: Data Tables
APPENDIX F: Periodic Table of the Elements
APPENDIX G: Largest Optical Telescopes in the World
APPENDIX H: Buying a Telescope
Glossary
Answers to Selected Questions
Index