Designing Complex Products with Systems Engineering Processes and Techniques

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface for the First Edition
Preface for This Second Edition
Website Materials
Acknowledgments
Author
Part I: Systems Engineering Concepts, Issues, and Methods in Product Design
Chapter 1: Introduction to Products, Processes, and Product Development
Introduction and Objectives
Understanding Products, Customers, Processes, and Systems
What Is a Product?
Who Is the Customer?
What Are Customer Needs?
What Is a Process?
Designing a Complex Product
Definition of a System
Systems, Subsystems, and Components
Systems Work with Other Systems
Product Families and Component Sharing
Product Development
Processes in Product Development
Flow Diagram of Product Development
Managing the Complex Product
Life Cycle Stages of a Product
Program Phases, Reviews, and Milestones
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 2: Systems Engineering and Other Disciplines in Product Design
Introduction
Systems Engineering Fundamentals
What Is Systems Engineering?
Managing a Complex Product
Systems Engineering Processes in Product Development
Systems Engineering Process
Five Loops in the Systems Engineering Process
Major Tasks in the Systems Engineering Process
Requirements Analysis
Functional Analysis and Allocation
Design Synthesis
Verification
Validation
Verification Versus Validation
Subsystems and Components Development
Example of Cascading a Requirement from the Product Level to a Component Level
Iterative Nature of the Loops within the Systems Engineering Process
Incremental and Iterative Development Approach
Systems Engineering “V” Model
NASA Description of the Systems Engineering Process
Managing the Systems Engineering Process
Relationship between Systems Engineering and Program Management
Role of Systems Engineers
Integrating Engineering Specialties into the Systems Engineering Process
Role of Computer-Assisted Technologies in Product Design
CAD and CAE
Model-Based Systems Engineering
Importance of Systems Engineering
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Systems Engineering Process
Some Challenges in Complex Product Development
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 3: Decision-Making and Risks in Product Programs
Introduction
Problem-Solving Approaches
Decision-Making
Alternatives, Outcomes, Payoffs, and Risks
Maximum Expected Value Principle
Other Principles
Techniques Used in Decision-Making
Analytical Hierarchical Method
Weighted Total Score for Concept Selection
Informational Needs in Decision-Making
Decision-Making in Product Design
Key Decisions in Product Life Cycle
Trade-Offs during Design Stages
Risks in Product Development and Product Uses
Definition of Risk and Types of Risks in Product Development
Types of Risks during Product Uses
Risk Analysis
Risk Matrix
Risk Priority Number and Nomographs
Problems in Risk Measurements
Importance of Early Decisions during Product Development
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 4: Product Attributes, Requirements, and Allocation of Functions
Introduction
Attributes and Requirements
What Is an Attribute?
Importance of Attributes
What Is a Requirement?
Attribute Requirements
Why “Specify” Requirements?
How Are Requirements Developed?
Characteristics of a Good Requirement
Types of Requirements
Customer Requirements
Functional Requirements
Performance Requirements
Interface Requirements
Reliability Requirements
Environmental Requirements
Human Factors Requirements
Safety Requirements
Security Requirements
Designed-to-Conform versus Manufactured-to-Conform Requirements
Where Are Requirements Stored?
Requirements Allocation and Analysis
Requirements Allocation
Requirements Analysis
Attributes Development
Cascading Attribute Requirements to Lower Levels
Dividing the Product into Manageable Levels
Relating Attribute Structure to Systems
An Example: Attributes, System Decomposition, and Requirements for Vehicle Exterior Lighting System
Attributes
Systems and Subsystems
Relationship between System Components and Requirements
Requirements of Exterior Lighting System
Verification Tests
An Example: Cascading of Vehicle Level Sub-attribute Requirements into Powertrain Subsystem Requirements
An Example: Attributes, Requirements, and Trade-Offs in Suspension Systems of a Sports Car
Attributes
Requirements
Trade-Offs
Factors Affecting Requirements
Role of Standards in Setting Requirements
Types of Standards
Advantages of Standards
Disadvantages of Standards
Problems with Standards
Standards Development Process
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 5: Understanding and Managing Interfaces
Introduction
Interface Definition, Types, and Requirements
What Is an Interface?
Types of Interfaces
Interface Requirements
Visualizing Interfaces
Interface Diagram
Interface Matrix and N-Squared Diagram
Examples of Interface Diagrams and Interface Matrices
Laptop Computer Interfaces
Automotive Fuel System Interfaces
Clustering and Sequencing of Matrix Data
Teamwork in Interface Management
Establishment of Interface Control
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 6: Detailed Engineering Design during Product Development
Introduction
Engineering Design
Six Product Examples
Illustration of Wind Turbine Design Using Systems Engineering “V” Model
Left Side of the “V”—Design and Engineering
Right Side of the “V”—Verification, Manufacturing, and Assembly
Right Side of the Diagram—Operation and Disposal
Activities in Engineering Design
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 7: Product Evaluation, Verification, and Validation
Objectives and Introduction
Why Evaluate, Verify, and Validate?
Testing, Verification, and Validation
Distinctions between Product Verification and Product Validation
Overview on Evaluation Issues
Types of Evaluations
Evaluation Methods: An Overview
Methods of Data Collection and Analysis
Observation Methods
Communication Methods
Experimentation Methods
Objective Measures and Data Analysis Methods
Subjective Methods and Data Analysis
Rating on a Scale
Analysis of 10-Point Ratings Data
Paired Comparison-Based Methods
Evaluations during Product Development
Verification Plan and Tests
Validation Plan and Tests
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 8: Program Planning and Management
Introduction
Program versus Project Management
Program Management Functions
Development of Detailed Project Plans
Project Management
Steps in Project Planning
Tools Used in Project Planning
Gantt Chart
Critical Path Method
Program (or Project) Evaluation and Review Technique
Work Breakdown Structure
Project Management Software
Other Tools
Systems Engineering Management Plan
Contents of SEMP
Checklist for Critical Information
Role of Systems Engineers
Value of Systems Engineering Management Plan
Complexity in Program Management
Time Management
Cost Management
Challenges in Program Management
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 9: Costs and Benefits Considerations and Models
Introduction
Types of Costs
Nonrecurring and Recurring Costs
Nonrecurring Costs
Recurring Costs
Revenues Buildup over Time as the Product Is Sold
Make versus Buy Decisions
Fixed versus Variable Costs
Quality Costs
Manufacturing Costs
Safety Costs
Product Termination Costs
Total Life Cycle Costs
Effect of Time on Costs
Benefits Estimation
Project Financial Plan
An Example: Automotive Product Program Cash Flow
Effect of Interest and/or Inflation
Product Pricing Approaches
Traditional Costs-Plus Approach
Market Price-Minus Profit Approach
Software Applications
Trade-Offs and Risks
Concluding Remarks
References
Part II: Quality, Human Factors, Safety, and Sustainability Approaches
Chapter 10: Quality Management and Six-Sigma Initiatives
Introduction
Definition of Quality
Key Concepts in Quality Management
Quality Gurus and Their Findings
Product Quality Measurements
Customer Satisfaction and the Kano Model of Quality
Quality Initiatives
Total Quality Management
ISO 9000
Malcolm Baldridge Award Criteria
Six-Sigma Methodologies
Overview of Tools Used in Quality Management
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 11: Human Factors Engineering in Product Design
Introduction
Human Factors Engineering
What Is It?
Human Factors Engineering Approach
Human Factors Research Studies
Human Factors Engineer’s Responsibilities in Designing Complex Products
Importance of Human Factors Engineering
Characteristics of Ergonomically Designed Products
Why Apply Human Factors Engineering?
Human Factors Engineering Is Not Commonsense
A Brief Overview of Human Characteristics and Capabilities
Physical Capabilities
Information Processing Capabilities
Other Factors Affecting Human Capabilities
Percentile Values
Human Errors
Definition of an Error
Types of Human Errors
Human Interface
User Performance Measurements
Types and Categories of User Performance Measures
Characteristics of Effective Performance Measures
Human Factors Methods: An Overview
Considerations in the Applications of Human Factors Guidelines
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 12: Safety Engineering in Product Design
Introduction
Background: Safety Engineering
Definition of Safety Engineering
Safety Problems
Importance and Need of Safety Engineering
3Es of Safety Engineering and Countermeasures
Methods Used in Safety Engineering
Historic Background
Definition of an Accident
Accident Causation Theories
Safety Performance Measures
Why Measure Safety Performance?
Currently Used Accident Measures
Accident-Based Incident Rates
Advantages and Disadvantages of Current Accident-Based Measures
Non-accident Measures
Safety Analysis Methodologies
Two Possibilities: Accident versus Hazard
Accident Analysis Methods
Hazard Analysis Methods
Product Safety and Liability
Terms and Principles Used in Product Litigations
Product Defects
Warnings
Safety Costs
Security Considerations in Product Design
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 13: Design for Sustainability
Introduction
What Is Sustainability?
What Is a Sustainable Product?
Life Cycle Consideration
Tools/Methods Used for Sustainability Analyses
Design for Environment
Design for Disassembly
Goal of DFD
DFD and DFA Guidelines
Use of Fasteners
Recycling and Material Recovery
Selection and Use of Materials
Product Design Guidelines for Recycling
Design for Active Disassembly
Concluding Remarks
References
Part III: Tools Used in Product Development, Quality, Human Factors, and Safety Engineering
Chapter 14: Methods and Toolbox
Introduction
Overview of Methods
Classification of Methods
Observation Methods
Communication Methods
Experimentation Methods
Data Presentation Methods
Methods in Product Development, Quality, Human Factors, Safety, and Program Management
Integration of Tools in Applications
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 15: Product Development Tools
Introduction
Benchmarking and Breakthrough
Benchmarking
Breakthrough
Differences between Benchmarking and Breakthrough
Pugh Diagram
An Example of Pugh Diagram Application
Quality Function Deployment
An Example of the Quality Function Deployment Chart
Cascading Quality Function Deployments
Advantages and Disadvantages of Quality Function Deployment
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
An Example of a Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
Failure Modes and Effects and Criticality Analysis
Other Product Development Tools
Business Plan
Program Status Chart
Standards
Model-Based Systems Engineering
Computer-Aided Design Tools
Prototyping and Simulation
Physical Mock-Ups
Technology Assessment Tools
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 16: Design for Manufacturing and Assembly
Introduction
Design, Functioning, Manufacturing, and Assembly
Principles of DFMA
Materials, Manufacturing and Assembly Considerations: An Example of IC Engine Piston
Manufacturing and Assembly Considerations
Manufacturing and Assmbly Costs
Assembly Engineer’s Recommendations to Component Designers for Assembly Cost Reductions
Methods to Estimate Assembly Time
Methods-Time Measurement
Boothroyd et al. Assembly Evaluation Methods
Boothroyd et al. Manual Assembly Evaluation Method
Other Boothroyd et al. Assembly Evaluation Methods
An Example of Applications of MTM-1 vs. Boothroyd’s Manual Assembly Time Estimating Methods
Similarities between MTM-1 and Boothroyd et al. Manual Assembly Methods
Dissimilarities between MTM-1 and Boothroyd et al. Methods
Boothroyd et al. Methods for Estimating Assembly Times for High-Speed Automatic Assembly and Robotic Assembly
High-Speed Automatic Assembly
Robotic Assembly
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 17: Traditional and New Quality Tools
Introduction
Traditional Quality Tools
Pareto Chart
Purpose
Description
Example: Pareto Chart of Customer Complaints
Cause-and-Effect Diagram
Purpose
Description
Example: C-E Diagram for Misaimed Headlamps
Cause-and-Effect Process Diagram
Check Sheet
Purpose
Description
Example: Checklist for Door Trim Defects
Example: Check Sheet for Defects in Painted Car Body
Histogram
Purpose
Description
Example: Histogram of Resistance of an Electrical Component
Scatter Diagram
Purpose
Description
Example: Scatterplot of Sitting Height versus Standing Height of 30 Human Operators
Stratification
Purpose
Description
Example: Stratification of Anthropometric Data by Gender
Control Charts
Purpose
Description
Some Examples of Control Charts
Variables Control Charts
Attributes Control Charts
New Quality Tools
Relations Diagram
Purpose
Description
Example: Understanding Causation of Headlamp Misaim
Affinity Diagram
Purpose
Description
Example: Grouping Causes of Headlamp Misaim
Systematic Diagram
Purpose
Description
Example: Alternatives to Reduce Product Development Time
Matrix Diagram
Purpose
Description
Example: Relationship between Vehicle Parameters and Vehicle Performance
Matrix Data Analysis
Purpose
Description
Examples of Matrix Data Analysis
Process Decision Program Chart
Purpose
Description
Example: PDPC for Reducing Problems in a Product Development Process
Arrow Diagrams
Purpose
Description
Examples
Experiment Design
An Example: Experiment to Select a Display with the Highest Luminance
Multivariate Experiment Designs
Taguchi’s Three-Step Product Design Approach
Taguchi’s Product Robustness and Quadratic Costs
Taguchi Experiments
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 18: Human Factors Engineering Tools
Introduction
Databases on Human Characteristics and Capabilities
Anthropometric and Biomechanical Human Models
Human Factors Checklists and Scorecards
Checklist
An Example: A Checklist for Evaluation of an Automotive Control
Scorecard
An Example: Ergonomic Scorecard for Automotive Interior Evaluation
Task Analysis
An Example: Task Analysis for Opening a Liftgate and Removing a Jack
Human Performance Evaluation Models
Laboratory, Simulator, and Field Studies
Human Performance Measurement Methods
Range of Human Performance Measures
Types and Categories of Human Performance Measures
Examples of Behavioral Human Performance Measures
Methods to Measure Human Operator Workload
Operator Performance Measurements
Physiological Measurements
Subjective Assessments
National Aeronautics and Space Administration Task Load Index
Subjective Workload Assessment Technique
Workload Profile
Secondary Task Performance Measurement
Product Psychophysics
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 19: Safety Engineering Tools
Introduction
Hazard Identification and Risk Reduction Tools
Hazard Analysis
General Hazard Analysis
Detailed Hazard Analysis
Methods Safety Analysis
Checklists to Uncover Hazards
Risk Analysis
Systems Safety Analysis Tools
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
Fault Tree Analysis
Purpose
Description
Application of Boolean Algebra
AND Gate
OR Gate
An Example: Two-Engine Aircraft
Fault Tree Development Rules
Rule 1: Fault Tree Development Rule
Rule 2: OR-Gate Event Rules
Rule 3: AND-Gate Event Rule
Fault Tree Example: Printer Fails to Print
Advantages of Fault Tree Analysis
Accident Data Analysis Tools
Purpose of Accident Data Collection
Flow of Accident Data Collection
Accident Data Reporting Thresholds
Accident Investigations
Accident Data Sources and Users
Safety Performance Monitoring, Evaluation, and Control
Interview and Observational Techniques for Non-Accident Measurement of Safety Performance
Critical Incident Technique
Behavioral Sampling
Control Charts
Before versus after Studies
Cost–Benefit Analysis
Reliability Analyses
Definitions of Reliability and Maintainability
Reliability of a Series System
Reliability of a Parallel System
Reliability of Hybrid Systems
Designing for Reliability
Approaches for Reliability Improvements
A Reliability Engineer’s Tasks
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 20: Cost–Benefit Analysis
Introduction
Cost–Benefit Analysis: What Is It?
Why Use Cost–Benefit Analysis?
Steps Involved in Cost–Benefit Analysis
Some Examples of Problems for Application of Cost–Benefit Analysis
Cost–Benefit Analysis of Residential Solar Panels: An Example
Problem
Cost–Benefit Analysis and Calculations
Installed Costs
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Insurance
Present Value of Cost
Avoided Electric Utility Cost
SREC, Net Metering, and Tax Credit Revenue
Net Present Value
Conclusions of the Cost–Benefit Analyses
Exercising Cost–Benefit Model for Sensitivity Analysis
Risks and Uncertainties in Cost–Benefit Analysis
Uncertainties
Controversial Aspects
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 21: Life Cycle Analyses
Introduction
What Is Product Life Cycle?
Life Cycle Analysis
Objectives of LCA
LCA Impact Categories
Carbon Footprint
Four Phases of Life Cycle Assessment
Life Cycle Cost Analysis
Objectives of LCCA
Some Examples of LCA and LCCA Applications
Examples of LCA
Emissions from Automotive Products
Examples of LCCA
Cost–Benefit Analysis of Photovoltaic Solar Panels
Levelized Cost of Technologies
Concluding Remarks
References
Part IV: Applications, Case Studies, and Integration
Chapter 22: Applications of Systems Engineering Tools: A Case Study on an Automotive Powertrain System
Introduction
Automotive Powertrain Project
Project Objectives
Project Steps
Systems, Subsystems, and Sub-Subsystems
Engine Sub-Subsystem
Transmission Sub-Subsystems
Drivetrain Sub-Subsystems
Fasteners
Decomposition Tree for the Powertrain System
Interfaces
Attributes of the Powertrain System
Fuel Economy
Performance
Costs
Cascading Vehicle Attribute Requirements to Powertrain Requirements
Trade-Offs in Powertrain Development
Concluding Remarks
Reference
Chapter 23: Case Studies and Integration
Introduction
Case Study 1: Motorcycle Systems
Objectives
Project Description
Motorcycle Attributes to Systems Relationships
Case Study 2: Benchmarking and Evaluation of Steering Wheels
Objectives
Project Description
Benchmarking Study
Evaluation in a Driving Simulator
Case Study 3: Pugh Analysis of an Automotive Concept
Objective
Problem: New Product Concept
Analysis of the Problem
Case Study 4: Cyclone Grinder Development
Objective
Project Description
Customer Requirements for the Grinder
Functional Requirements for the Grinder
Systems and Components of the Grinder
Grinder Development Project Schedule
Key Concepts for Successful Cyclone Grinder Design
Risk Management
Key Observations
Case Study 5: smart Car Design and Production
Objectives
Project Introduction
Smart Car’s Customer Needs
Benchmarking of the smart Car
Key Product Design Development Issues
Key Business and Supply Chain Issues
Case Study 6: Problems during Boeing 777 Development
Objective
Project Description and Uncovered Problems
Case Study 7: Boeing 787 Dreamliner Design and Production
Objective
Project and Product Description
Production Issues
Case Study 8: Flexible Assembly Line for Laptop Computers
Objectives
Background
Assembly Line Configuration
Case Study 9: Specifications for an Electric Car
Objective
Project Background
Application of the Matrix Data Analysis
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 24: Case Studies in Cost–Benefit Analysis
Introduction
Case Study 1: Cost–Benefit Analysis of Automotive Product Development Programs
Case Study 2: JEDI Model Applications for Comparison of Costs and Economic Benefits of Wind Turbine Power Plant with Natural Gas Power Plant
Case Study 3: Evaluation of Five Electric Power Generation Alternatives
Methodology
Case Study 4: NHTSA/EPA Cost–Benefit Analysis: Increases in Vehicle Costs, Fuel Savings, and Avoided Pollution
Increase in Vehicle Price vs. Fuel Savings
Case Study 5: Manufacturing and Assembly Line: Robotic Assembly of an Automotive Differential Gear Carrier
Baseline Manual Assembly
Robotic Assembly Method
Fixture
Bolt Feeding
Grippers
Row and Column Codes for Components
Assumptions Regarding Parts and Assembly Considerations
Cost–Benefit Analysis
Life Cycle Cost Analysis
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 25: Challenges and Future Issues in Systems Engineering
Introduction
Challenges in Systems Engineering
Need for Tools in Complex Product Development
Tools to Manage Multifunctional and Multiple Requirements
Coordination of Global Design Teams
Commonality
Modularity
CAD and CAE Integration
Ergonomic Needs in Designing Products
Future Technological Challenges
Bright Future for Systems Engineers
Characteristics of a Good Systems Engineer
Teaching Systems Engineering
Objectives of the Projects
Project Work
Brief Descriptions of the Projects
Concluding Remarks
References
Appendix 1: Product Development Case Studies
Objectives
Method
Part I
Part II
Appendix 2: Benchmarking, Quality Function Deployment, and Design Specifications
Objectives
Procedure
Appendix 3: Vehicle Systems Analyses: Requirements, Interfaces, Trade-Offs, and Verification
Objectives
Method
Appendix 4: Business Plan and Systems Engineering Management Plan for the Proposed Vehicle
Objectives
Contents of the Report
Appendix 5: Conceptual Design of the Proposed Vehicle
Objectives
Procedure
Appendix 6: Vehicle Assembly Process Plan
Objectives
Contents of the Report
Appendix 7: Term Project: Final Report
Objectives
Contents of the Report
Appendix 8: Calculations of Centerline and Control Limits for Control Charts
Notations Common to Both Variables and Attributes Control Charts
Notations for Variables Control Charts
Process Capability Measurements
Notations for Attributes Control Charts
3-Sigma Control Upper and Lower Limits and Centerlines
X-Bar and R Charts
X-Bar and S Charts
X and R M Charts
P Chart (For Constant Subgroup Size of n)
P Chart (For Variable Subgroup Size of nj)
NP Chart
U Chart (For Subgroup Size of Nj)
C Chart (For Constant Subgroup Size of N)
References
Index