Desert Malaria: An Emerging Malaria Paradigm and Its Global Impact on Disease Elimination

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
1: `Desert Malaria´: An Emerging New Paradigm
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Definition
1.1.2 Malaria Symptoms
1.1.3 Parasites
1.1.4 Malaria Vectors
1.1.4.1 The Americas
1.1.4.2 Africa
1.1.4.3 Asia-Pacific
1.2 Deserts, Arid Environments, and Malaria
1.3 Ecotypes of Malaria in the Desert Environments
1.4 Desert-Based Malaria
1.4.1 The Problem
1.4.2 Types of Desert-Based Malaria Paradigms
1.4.2.1 Desert Oasis Malaria
1.4.2.2 Desert Fringe Malaria
1.4.2.3 Desert Malaria
2: Global vis-à-vis Desert-Driven Malaria
2.1 Global Malaria Scenario
2.2 Desert-Driven Malaria
2.2.1 Malaria in African Sahara Desert
2.2.2 Malaria in Arabian Peninsula Desert
2.2.3 Malaria in the Middle East/Central and West Asian Deserts
2.2.4 Malaria in the Great Indian Thar Desert
2.2.4.1 Brief History of Malaria in India
2.2.4.2 Malaria Situation in Rajasthan State
Malaria Situation During Pre-1966 Period
Malaria Situation During 1967-1976
Malaria Situation During 1977-1995
Malaria Situation During 1996-2020
Malaria Situation in the Great Indian Thar Desert
Milestones on Malaria Research in the Thar Desert
3: World Deserts: Environments and Malaria Potential
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Desert Environments, Man, and Malaria
3.3 Deserts with Potential to Exacerbate Malaria
3.3.1 Sahara Desert and Malaria
3.3.2 Arabian Peninsula Desert and Malaria
3.3.3 The Great Indian Thar Desert and Malaria
4: Desert Water Sources and Vector Adaptation
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Traditional Sources of Water in Deserts
4.2.1 Lakes
4.2.2 Oases
4.2.3 Desert Fringes
4.2.4 Springs, Well, and Seasonal Streams
4.2.5 Wadi
4.2.6 Fossil Water
4.2.7 Mines
4.2.8 Petro Products
4.2.9 Aquifers
4.2.10 Canals
4.2.11 Snowfall in the Sahara Desert: A New and Rare Source for Water
5: `TANKA´ and `BERI´: The Most Crucial Habitats for Breeding of Anopheles stephensi and Emergence of ``DESERT MALARIA´´ in th...
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Wetlands and Sources of Potable Water
5.3 `Tanka and `Beri´: Most Significant Malariogenic Habitats in the Thar Desert
5.3.1 `Tanka´
5.3.1.1 Benefits of Tanka
5.3.1.2 Present Status of Tankas
5.3.1.3 Size of Tanka and Construction Materials
5.3.1.4 Volume of Water per Tanka Required
5.3.2 Beri
5.4 Microclimates of `Tanka´ and `Beri´
6: Extensive Canalization and Its Impact on Transformation of the Thar Desert and Malaria Exacerbation
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Canalized Irrigation in the Sahara Desert
6.2.1 Ziway´s Canalized Irrigation
6.3 Canalized Irrigation in the Thar Desert of India
6.3.1 The IGNP Command Area Characteristics and Malaria Exacerbation
6.3.2 Transformation in the Thar´s Physiography
6.4 Salutogenesis, Canalized Irrigation in Desert Environment, and Mosquitoes
7: Anopheline Fauna and Major Malaria Vectors of Deserts
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Deserts´ Most Dangerous Malaria Vectors
7.2.1 The Sahara Desert
7.2.2 The Arabian Peninsula Desert
7.2.3 The Middle East/West Asia/Central Asia Deserts
7.2.4 The Great Indian Desert, the Thar Desert
7.3 Bio-Ecology of Anopheline Mosquitoes
7.4 Dispersal
7.5 Succession and Replacement of Taxa
7.6 Density of Anopheline Mosquitoes
7.7 Biting Behaviour and Host Preference of the Anopheline Mosquitoes
7.8 Age Structure of Vector Mosquitoes
7.9 Vector Incrimination Studies
7.10 Major Breeding Habitats of Different Anopheline Species
7.11 Correlation of Canalized Irrigation under National Five-Year Plan of Economy Development with the Malaria Escalation in t...
7.12 Insecticide Usage in Health and Agricultural Programmes and Development of Insecticide Resistance in Vector Species
7.13 Species Complexes in Vectors of the Thar Desert
7.14 Anopheles stephensi-Anopheles culicifacies Distribution-Based Classification of the Thar Desert
8: Anophelenization of the Deserts
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Phenomenon of Anophelenization
8.3 Chorogeography of Anopheline Mosquitoes
9: Sibling Species Complexes of Malaria Vectors in Major Deserts
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Species Complexes in Deserts
9.2.1 The Sahara Desert
9.2.2 The Middle East/West Asia/Central Asia Deserts
9.2.3 The Thar Desert in India
9.3 The Enigmatic Status of Anopheles stephensi
10: Anopheles stephensi Liston 1901: Origin and Chorogeography-A New Hypothesis
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Classification
10.3 Etymology of Anopheles stephensi
10.4 Distribution
10.5 The New `Out of Range´ Occurrence of An. stephensi Since Early Twenty-First Century
10.5.1 Gulf Countries
10.5.2 Africa
10.5.3 Middle East and West Asia
10.5.4 The Thar Desert
10.6 The Original Desert Mosquito: Anopheles stephensi
10.7 A New Hypothesis on the Origin and Evolution of Anopheles stephensi
10.7.1 The Hypothesis Based on the Rule of Reinig (1938, 1939)
10.7.2 The Basis
10.7.3 The Evolution and Migration Pathways of New Species or Subspecies to Other Regions
10.7.4 Test of Bergmann´s Rule on the Origin of Anopheles stephensi
11: Invasive Vector Species of Malaria in Desert Environments
11.1 Introduction
11.2 What Makes a Vector Species `Invasive´
11.3 Interplay Between Vector-Pathogen Interaction Dynamics and the Climate Change
11.4 Invasion of Anopheles stephensi Within India
11.5 Invasion of Anopheles stephensi in Sri Lanka
11.6 Invasion of An. stephensi in West Asia/Middle East
11.7 Invasion of An. stephensi in Arabian Peninsula
11.8 Invasion of An. stephensi in Africa
12: Epidemiology of Desert Malaria
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Ecological, Biological and Social Aspects of Malaria Disease in Major Deserts
12.3 Dynamics of Malaria Prevalence in Major Deserts
12.3.1 The Sahara Desert
12.3.2 The Arabian Peninsula
12.3.3 Middle East/West Asia/Central Asia Deserts
12.3.4 The Thar Desert
12.4 Review of Malaria Situation for Individual District Under the Thar Desert
12.5 Possible Factors Responsible for Conflagration of Malaria, Particularly P. Falciparum-Dominated Malaria
12.6 Malaria-Associated Complications or Malaria Syndromes
13: Epidemics of Malaria in Major Deserts
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Malaria Epidemic Modelling
13.2.1 The P. falciparum Infection Model
13.2.2 The Liverpool Malaria Model (LMM)
13.3 Epidemics in Saharan Countries
13.4 Epidemics in the Thar Desert
13.5 Possible Pathways of Evolution of Malaria Epidemics in the Thar Desert
13.6 Early Warning Systems for Epidemic Malaria in the Thar Desert
14: Urban Malaria in the Desert
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Factors Responsible
14.3 Vectors
14.4 Urban Malaria
14.4.1 Sahara Desert
14.4.2 Middle East/Central and West Asia
14.4.3 Thar Desert
14.4.4 Quarry Mine Malaria
14.4.5 Construction Site-Water Storage Pits
14.4.6 Roadside Water Tanks for Cattle/Animal Drinking
14.4.7 Overhead Water Tanks
15: Clinical Scenario of Desert Malaria
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Malaria Clinical Spectrum
15.2.1 Symptoms
15.2.2 Splenomegaly
16: Agroeconomical and Eco-Bio-Social Aspects of Malaria in Deserts
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Agroeconomical and Social Impacts of Malaria: Paradox about Rice Cultivation in the Irrigated Desert Region and Malaria
16.3 Health Impact of Malaria
16.4 Knowledge, Attitude and Practice of the Rural Population about Malaria in the Thar Desert
17: Vector Identification and Malaria Diagnosis in Major Deserts
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Dichotomous Keys for Identification of Vectors of Malaria in India
17.2.1 Fourth Instar Larvae of Malaria Vectors
17.2.2 Adults of Vector Mosquitoes
17.3 Distinctive Taxonomic Characters of the World´s Two Major Malaria Vectors in Desert Environments, Anopheles stephensi Lis...
17.3.1 Morphological
17.3.2 Chromosomal
17.3.3 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
17.4 Parasite Diagnosis
17.4.1 Microscopic
17.4.2 Rapid Diagnostic Test
17.5 Clinical Diagnosis
18: Malaria Immunity in Desert Populations and Development of Resistance in Parasites against Antimalarials
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Malaria Endemicity and Immunity Development
18.3 Biology of Malaria Parasites
18.4 Clinical Symptoms and Treatments
18.5 Parasite Resistance against Antimalarials
18.6 Malaria Treatment and Immunity
19: Malaria and Climate Change
19.1 Introduction
19.2 The Sahara Desert
19.3 The Thar Desert
19.3.1 Physical Transformation in the Thar Desert Climate
19.3.1.1 Rainfall
19.3.1.2 Air Temperature
19.3.1.3 Relative Humidity
19.3.2 Malariological Transformation in the Thar Desert Climate
19.3.2.1 Entomological Investigations
19.3.2.2 Parasitological Investigations
19.4 Where Is the Thar Desert Heading to Malariologically under Climate Change
20: Anopheles stephensi: The First Vector to Show an Evolutionary Response to Rapid Climate Change
20.1 Introduction
20.2 The Principle
20.3 The Basis
20.4 Population, Urbanization, Anthropization and Climate Change in the Thar Desert
20.5 Urbanization-Driven Climate Change and Effluxes of Anopheles stephensi from the Thar Desert to In-Country and Extraterrit...
20.6 Conclusion
21: Trans-Border Migration and Malaria in Desert Populations
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Human Movement in Search of Fodder for Cattle
21.3 Malaria Transmission across International Borders
21.3.1 The Saudi-Yemeni Border
21.3.2 The Jordan-Iraq Border
21.3.3 Malaria Status of Countries Bordering India
21.3.4 Ethiopia and Sudan
21.3.5 Border Malaria in the Thar Desert
22: Malaria Management Including Vector Control in Major Deserts
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Malaria Control in the Desert
22.2.1 Sahara and Arab Peninsula Deserts
22.2.2 Malaria Control in the Desert
22.2.2.1 Malaria Control Policy
22.2.2.2 Diagnosis and Treatment
22.2.2.3 Vector Control through Insecticides
22.2.2.4 Biological Control of Mosquitoes
22.3 Research on Phytochemicals as Repellents against Anopheles stephensi from the Thar Desert
22.4 Role of Community and Future Scenario of Malaria Control in the Thar Desert
23: Inventions, Innovations and Discoveries in Malaria in Desert Environments
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Discovery of the First Human Malaria Parasite
23.3 Discovery of Entry of Anopheles stephensi in Africa´s Sahara Desert
23.4 Discovery of `Tanka´ and `Beri´ as the Main Breeding Habitats for Anopheles stephensi in the Thar Desert
23.5 Invention of a `Tanka Lid´
23.6 Invention of a Mechanical Mosquito Sampler (Tyagi Sampler)
23.7 Coining a New Classification System of the Thar Desert Based on the Distribution of Malaria Vectors (Anopheles stephensi ...
23.8 Hypothesis on the Cradle of Anopheles stephensi in the Thar Desert
23.9 Discovery of the Phenomenon of `Self-Immobilization´ in Anopheles stephensi
23.10 Hypothesis on Anopheles stephensi: A Sibling Species Complex
23.11 Discovery of Cerebral Malaria Caused by Plasmodium vivax in Adults
23.12 New Theory on Epidemics in the Thar Desert
24: Future Implications of Desert Malaria in Global Elimination Campaign
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Anthropization and Climate Change: The Major Triggers for Malaria Exacerbation in the Desert
24.3 Excessive Rainfall and Malaria Epidemics in the Thar Desert
24.4 Climate Variability: Impact of El Nino Southern Oscillation on Malaria Conflagration
24.5 The Phenomenon of `Inundative Vectorism´
24.6 Malaria Control in Deserts
25: Conclusion: Will Deserts Transform into Malaria Hotspots Tomorrow?
Glossary
References