Coupled Atmosphere-Ocean Dynamics: From El Nino to Climate Change

Cover
Coupled Atmosphere-Ocean Dynamics: from El NiÑo to Climate Change
Copyright
Epilogue
Spontaneous oscillations
Energy view
Outlook
Now I see
References
Preface
i. Ocean-atmosphere coupling
ii. Aims of the book
iii. Organization
iv. Pedagogical features
Acknowledgments
1. Introduction
1.1 Role of the Ocean in Climate
1.2 Climate in the News
1.3 Fundamentals
1.3.1 Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
1.3.2 Ocean
1.3.3 Atmosphere
Isobaric Coordinates
Thermodynamic Variables
1.3.4 Air-Sea Exchange
1.4 General Circulation Models
1.5 Statistical Methods
1.5.1 Correlation
1.5.2 Empirical Orthogonal Function
2. Energy balance and transport
2.1 Planetary energy balance and greenhouse effect
2.2 Radiative imbalance and energy transport
2.3 Ocean heat transport
2.3.1 Ocean meridional overturning circulations
2.3.2 Sea surface heat flux
2.4 Atmospheric energy transport
2.4.1 Tropics
2.4.2 Extratropics
Review questions
3. Tropical convection and planetary-scale circulation
3.1 Water vapor budget
3.2 Ocean temperature effect on convection
3.3 Latent heat release in convection
3.4 Equatorial waves
3.4.1 Two-level model
3.4.2 Kelvin wave
3.4.3 Rossby waves
3.4.4 Wave dispersion
3.5 Planetary-scale circulation
3.5.1 Response to an isolated heating
3.5.2 Observed tropical circulation
3.5.3 Rotational and divergent flow
3.6 Weak temperature gradient and convective threshold
3.7 Outlook
Review questions
4. Madden-Julian oscillation
4.1 Convectively coupled waves
4.1.1 Phase speed slowdown
4.1.2 Kelvin wave
4.1.3 Evaporation-wind feedback
4.2 Madden-Julian oscillation
4.2.1 Circulation structure
4.2.2 Zonal modulations
4.2.3 Index
4.2.4 Seasonality
4.2.5 Ocean response
4.2.6 Subseasonal prediction
4.3 Moisture mode theory
Review questions
5. Summer Monsoons
5.1 South Asian monsoon
5.1.1 Circulation
5.1.2 Orographic effects on convection
5.1.3 Onset
5.2 East Asian monsoon
5.2.1 Thermal advection by the westerly jet
5.2.2 Socioeconomic impacts
5.2.3 Subtropical convection
5.3 Asian summer monsoon system
5.3.1 Subsystems
5.3.2 Connection to the Sahara Desert
5.4 West African monsoon
5.5 North American monsoon
5.6 Global monsoon
5.7 Discussion
Review questions
6. Subtropical climate: Trade winds and low clouds
6.1 Trade wind climate
6.2 Cloud-regime transition
6.3 Climate feedback
6.3.1 Cloud-SST feedback
6.3.2 Global radiative feedback
6.4 California climate
6.4.1 Coastal upwelling
6.4.2 Atmospheric rivers
6.4.3 Hydroclimate
Review questions
7. Equatorial oceanography
7.1 Dynamical models
7.1.1 Equatorial upwelling
7.1.2 Thermal stratification
7.1.3 Pressure perturbations due to thermocline displacements
7.1.4 1.5-layer reduced-gravity model
7.1.5 2.5-layer model
7.2 Ocean response to wind stress forcing
7.2.1 Currents at the equator
7.2.2 Yoshida jet
7.2.3 Wave adjustments in an unbounded ocean
7.2.4 Ocean adjustments with meridional boundaries
7.2.5 Long Rossby waves and Sverdrup balance
7.2.6 Equatorial current system
7.3 Mixed-layer heat budget
7.3.1 Governing equation
7.3.2 Surface heat flux
Review questions
8. Coupled feedbacks and tropical climatology
8.1 Meridional asymmetry
8.1.1 Wind-evaporation-sea surface temperature feedback
8.1.2 Coupled model
8.1.3 Continental forcing and the westward control
8.1.4 Tropical basin view vs. global zonal-mean theory
8.2 Equatorial cold tongue and Walker circulation
8.3 Equatorial annual cycle
8.3.1 Annual frequency
8.3.2 Westward phase propagation
8.3.3 Broad seasonal variations
Review questions
9. El Niño, the Southern Oscillation, and the global influence
9.1 1997-1998 El Niño
9.2 Bjerknes feedback
9.2.1 Effect of Earth rotation
9.2.2 Ocean heat budget and coupled instability
9.3 Mechanisms for oscillation
9.4 Life cycle
9.4.1 Seasonal phase locking
9.4.2 Triggering mechanisms
9.4.3 ENSO diversity
9.4.4 Spring convective view
9.5 Global influences
9.5.1 Tropics
9.5.2 Pacific North American pattern
9.5.3 Ocean waveguide
9.6 Barotropic stationary waves in the westerlies
9.6.1 Energy dispersion
9.6.2 Rossby wave source
9.6.3 Geographic anchor
9.6.4 Seasonality
9.7 Seasonal prediction
9.8 Summary remarks
Review questions
10. Tropical Atlantic variability
10.1 Seasonal cycle
10.1.1 Intertropical convergence zone
10.1.2 Equatorial cold tongue
10.1.3 Easterly winds over the equatorial Gulf of Guinea
10.2 Zonal mode: Atlantic Niño
10.3 Meridional mode
10.4 Interactions with the Pacific
10.4.1 ENSO influence
10.4.2 Influence on the Pacific
10.5 Climate modulation of tropical cyclones
10.5.1 Genesis potential
10.5.2 Dynamics of wind shear
10.5.3 Interannual variability
10.5.4 Ocean feedback
10.6 Summary
Review questions
11. Indian Ocean variability
11.1 Seasonal cycle
11.2 Zonal mode: Indian Ocean dipole
11.3 Basin mode
11.3.1 Thermocline ridge
11.3.2 Wind-evaporation-sea surface temperature (WES) feedback in boreal spring
11.4 Post-ENSO summer capacitor effect
11.4.1 Indian Ocean effect on the atmosphere
11.4.2 Regional ocean-atmosphere coupling
11.4.3 Prediction
11.5 Asian summer monsoon variability
11.5.1 India
11.5.2 China
11.6 Synthesis
Review questions
12. Extratropical variability and the influence on the tropics
12.1 Atmospheric internal variability
12.2 Atmospheric forcing of SST: Lagged correlation diagnosis
12.2.1 Stochastic model 1 without positive feedback
12.2.2 Lagged correlation
12.2.3 Stochastic model 2 with ocean feedback
12.2.4 Observed cross-correlation
12.3 Ocean dynamic effects
12.3.1 Ocean Rossby waves
12.3.2 Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation
12.4 Extratropical influence on tropical climate
12.4.1 Pacific meridional mode
12.4.2 Cross-equatorial energy transport
12.5 Deep meridional overturning circulation
12.6 Summary remarks
Review questions
13. Global Warming: Thermodynamic Effects
13.1 Climate feedback analysis
13.1.1 Equilibrium response
13.1.2 Transient response
13.1.3 Abrupt CO2 increase experiment
13.2 Global warming hiatus
13.2.1 Tropical Pacific pacemaker effect
13.2.2 Planetary energetics
13.2.3 Estimating anthropogenic warming
13.3 Robust atmospheric changes due to thermodynamic effects
13.3.1 Enhanced warming over land
13.3.2 Heatwaves
13.3.3 Arctic amplification
13.3.4 Hydrologic cycle
13.3.5 Slowdown of Walker circulation
13.3.6 Extreme precipitation
13.3.7 Vertical structure of the tropospheric warming
13.3.8 Expansion of subtropical dry zones
13.4 Surface acceleration of the subtropical ocean gyre
13.5 Discussion
Review questions
14. Regional climate change
14.1 Regional patterns of tropical rainfall change
14.2 SST pattern dynamics
14.2.1 El Niño and Southern Oscillation (ENSO) changes
14.2.2 El Niño–like warming
14.2.3 Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)–like warming
14.3 Regional uncertainty due to atmospheric circulation change
14.3.1 SST pattern
14.3.2 Internal variability
14.4 Ocean heat uptake
14.4.1 Response to greenhouse forcing
14.4.2 Cross-equatorial energy transport
14.5 Aerosol effects
14.5.1 Interhemispheric asymmetry
14.5.2 Ocean dynamic feedback
14.5.3 Evolving distribution
14.6 Historical climate change
14.7 Synthesis
Review questions
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
K
L
M
N
O
P
R
S
T
U
V
W
Y
Z