Convergent Evolution: Animal Form and Function

Preface
Contents
Chapter 1: The Concept of Convergent Evolution and Its Relationship to the Understanding of Form and Function
1.1 Recognition of the Phenomenon of Convergent Evolution
1.2 Approaches to the Study of Convergent Evolution in Contemporary Biology
1.3 Convergence of Form and Function
1.4 The Objectives and Structure of this Volume
References
Chapter 2: Odonatopteran Approaches to the Challenges of Flight: Convergence of Responses Subject to a Common Set of Morpholog...
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Material and Methods
2.3 Specialized Morphological Structures of Modern Odonatan Wings
2.4 Convergences in Wing Structures
2.4.1 Nodus
2.4.2 Pterostigma
2.4.3 Discoidal Complex
2.4.4 Arculus
2.4.5 Transverse Reinforcing Structures of the Basal Halves of Wings
2.4.6 Wing Petiolation
2.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Digging Up Convergence in Fossorial Rodents: Insights into Burrowing Activity and Morpho-Functional Specializations...
3.1 Introduction
3.2 A Brief Overview of Burrowing in Rodents
3.2.1 Extensive Burrowing Activity
3.2.2 Burrowing Modes and Behaviours
3.3 A Highly Specialized Skull with Massive Masticatory Muscles
3.3.1 Cranial and Mandibular Convergences
3.3.2 Prominent Adductor Muscles
3.4 The Incisors: A Powerful Tool for Digging
3.4.1 Highly Specialized Incisors
3.4.2 Procumbency and Mechanical Efficiency of the Incisors
3.4.3 Absolute Incisor Bite Force
3.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Testing for Convergent Evolution in Baleen Whale Cochleae
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Methods
4.3 Results
4.4 Discussion
4.4.1 Mysticete Inner Ear Morphospace
4.4.2 Convergence of Minke and Bryde´s Whales
4.4.3 Why Are Baleen Whale Cochleae Not Convergent?
4.4.4 Challenges and Future Work
4.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5: The Sacro-Iliac Joint of the Felidae and Canidae and Their Large Ungulate Prey: An Example of Divergence and Conver...
5.1 Introduction
5.2 SIJ and Locomotion
5.3 SIJ and Feeding Behavior
5.3.1 Ungulata (Perissodactyla and Terrestrial Cetartiodactyla)
5.3.2 Carnivora
5.4 Case Study of the Canidae
5.4.1 General Morphology of the SIJ
5.4.2 SIJ Topography
5.4.3 Interiliac Angle
5.5 Case Study of the Felidae
5.5.1 Topography
5.6 Discussion
Appendix 1: Geometric Calculation to Determine the Topography of the Articular Surface (Figs. 5.12, 5.16 and 5.17)
Appendix 2: Data Set Used for the Study of the Interiliac Angle (Fig. 5.4; Tables 5.2 and 5.3)
Appendix 3: Data set for the Felidae Used for the SIJ Topographic Study (Figs. 5.5, 5.13, 5.14, 5.15, 5.16, and 5.17; Table 5....
References
Chapter 6: Aquatic Feeding in Lissamphibia
6.1 Caudata (Salamanders)
6.1.1 Introduction
6.1.2 Food Detection
6.1.3 Food Capture
6.1.4 Intraoral Transport, Processing and Swallowing
6.2 Anura (Frogs and Toads)
6.2.1 Introduction
6.2.2 Food Detection
6.2.3 Food Capture
6.2.3.1 Aquatic Feeding in Tadpoles
6.2.3.2 Aquatic Feeding Modes of Adult Frogs
6.2.4 Intraoral Transport, Processing and Swallowing
6.3 Gymnophiona
6.3.1 Introduction
6.3.2 Food Detection
6.3.3 Food Capture
6.3.4 Intraoral Transport, Processing and Swallowing
6.4 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 7: Convergence of Aquatic Feeding Modes in the Sauropsida (Crocodiles, Birds, Lizards, Snakes and, Turtles)
7.1 Crocodylia
7.1.1 Introduction
7.1.2 Food Detection
7.1.3 Food Capture
7.1.4 Intraoral Transport, Processing and Swallowing
7.2 Birds
7.2.1 Introduction
7.2.2 Food Detection
7.2.3 Food Capture
7.2.4 Food Transport, Processing and Swallowing
7.3 Lepidosauria
7.3.1 Introduction
7.3.2 Food Detection
7.3.3 Food Capture
7.3.4 Food Transport, Processing and Swallowing
7.4 Testudines
7.4.1 Introduction
7.4.2 Food Detection
7.4.3 Food Capture
7.4.4 Intraoral Transport, Processing and Swallowing
7.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 8: Convergent Evolution of Secondarily Aquatic Feeding in Mammals
8.1 Introduction: General Evolution of and Strategies for Aquatic Feeding
8.2 Raptorial (Seizing) Biting
8.3 Suction Feeding
8.4 Durophagous Biting, Herbivory, and Benthic Foraging
8.5 Filter Feeding
8.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 9: Solutions to a Sticky Problem: Convergence of the Adhesive Systems of Geckos and Anoles (Reptilia: Squamata)
9.1 Attachment Systems of Vertebrates and the Filament-Based Adhesion of Geckos and Anoles
9.2 Review of the Gekkotan and Anoline Adhesive Systems
9.2.1 Gekkotan Setae and Setal Fields
9.2.1.1 Form and Variability of Gekkotan Subdigital Epidermal Outgrowths
9.2.1.2 Adhesion Mechanics and Properties of Individual Gekkotan Setae
9.2.1.3 Configuration of Gekkotan Setal Fields
9.2.1.4 Attachment and Properties of Gekkotan Setal Arrays
9.2.2 The Gekkotan Adhesive System
9.2.2.1 General Characteristics
9.2.2.2 Selection of an Appropriate Gekkotan Model for Comparison with Anolis
9.2.3 Anoline Setae and Setal Fields
9.2.3.1 Anoline Setal Form and Variability
9.2.3.2 Anoline Setal Field Configuration
9.2.3.3 Attachment Mechanics and Functional Morphology of Anoline Setae and Setal Arrays: What We Do and Don´t Know
9.2.4 The Anoline Adhesive System
9.2.5 Comparison of Clinging Performance in Geckos and Anoles
9.3 Fundamental Factors Affecting the Form and Function of Fibrillar Adhesive Systems
9.3.1 Physical Constraints
9.3.2 Structural Constraints
9.4 Assessing the Fidelity of Convergence Between Gekkotan and Anoline Adhesive Systems
9.5 General Conclusions Relating to Convergence of Gekkotan and Anoline Adhesive Systems
References
Chapter 10: Convergent Evolution of Animal Adhesive Pads
10.1 The Role of Adhesion for Animals
10.2 Adhesion in Insects
10.3 Polyneoptera, a Striking Example for Convergent Traits
10.4 Adhesive Microstructures in Phasmatodea
10.5 Versatile Adaptability Promotes Convergences
10.6 General Functional Principles for Adhesion
10.7 Transfer to Biomimetics
References
Chapter 11: Convergence of Arboreal Locomotor Specialization: Morphological and Behavioral Solutions for Movement on Narrow an...
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Biomechanical Challenges of Narrow Arboreal Supports
11.2.1 Narrow Supports Increase the Potential for Tangential Slipping
11.2.2 Narrow Supports Challenge Mediolateral Stability
11.2.2.1 Strategies that Promote Mediolateral Stability on Narrow Supports: 1. Reducing the Net Magnitude of Translational For...
11.2.2.2 Strategies that Promote Mediolateral Stability on Narrow Supports: 2. Reduction of the Distance of the from the Whole...
11.2.2.3 Strategies for Promoting Mediolateral Stability on Narrow Supports: 3. Production of Stabilizing Torques to Balance D...
11.3 Biomechanical Challenges Presented by Compliant Arboreal Supports
11.3.1 Behavioral Strategies for Mitigating the Effects of Arboreal Support Compliance
11.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 12: Convergent Evolution of Manual and Pedal Grasping Capabilities in Tetrapods
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Grasping in Lissamphibians
12.2.1 Anatomical Bases of Grasping and the Precision Grip
12.2.2 Grasping Performance
12.2.3 Brain Correlates
12.3 Grasping in Non-avian Reptiles
12.3.1 The Anatomy of the Hands and Feet of a Grasping Lizard
12.3.2 Pedal Grasping in Lizards
12.3.3 Lizard Grasping Performance
12.3.4 What About Other Reptilian Groups: Turtles and Crocodiles?
12.4 Grasping in Birds
12.4.1 Opposability of Digits
12.4.2 Toe Pad and Claw Morphology
12.4.3 Musculoskeletal Modifications for Grasping
12.4.4 Behavioral Repertoires
12.4.5 Summary and Prospects
12.5 Grasping in Mammals
12.5.1 First and Early Grasping Experiences
12.5.2 Manual and Pedal Substrate Grasping
12.5.3 Manual Food Grasping and Manipulation
12.5.4 Functional Adaptations and Ecological Consequences
12.5.5 Hand Preference, Social Interaction and Emotion in Primate Grasping Behavior
12.5.6 Concluding Remarks About Grasping in Mammals
12.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 13: Convergence in Gliding Animals: Morphology, Behavior, and Mechanics
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 What Is Gliding?
13.1.2 Driving Forces of Convergence in Gliders
13.1.3 Environment
13.1.4 Locomotor Economy
13.1.5 Predation
13.1.6 Foraging
13.1.7 Falling
13.1.8 A Note on the Evolutionary Arguments for Gliding
13.2 Morphology
13.2.1 Membrane Wings
13.2.2 Skin Flaps
13.2.3 Flattened Body
13.2.4 Limbs
13.2.5 Sensory Structures
13.3 Behavior
13.3.1 Takeoff Maneuvers
13.3.1.1 Jumping Takeoffs
13.3.1.2 Launching from the Water
13.3.2 Tail Movement
13.3.3 Body Flattening
13.3.4 Airfoil Modification
13.3.4.1 Camber Adjustment
13.3.4.2 Wing Area
13.3.4.3 Body Undulation
13.3.5 Aerial Maneuvers
13.3.5.1 Pitch Control
13.3.5.2 Rolls
13.3.5.3 Drag-Inducing Limb Movement
13.3.5.4 Body Inertia
13.3.5.5 Landing Maneuvers
13.4 Mechanics
13.4.1 Aerodynamics
13.4.2 Inertial Mechanics
13.4.3 Control
References
Chapter 14: Convergence of Bipedal Locomotion: Why Walk or Run on Only Two Legs
14.1 Introduction
14.2 If Not Selected For, Why Walk or Run on Two Legs?
14.2.1 Occasional Bipedalism in Lizards: Involuntary But Dynamically Imposed
14.2.1.1 Setting the Mechanical Scene
14.2.1.2 Linking the Mechanical Framework to Lizard Locomotion
14.2.1.3 Is Lizard-Bipedality Adaptive?: Part 1
14.2.1.4 What Is the Probability of an Alternative Adaptive (and Convergent) Scenario?
14.2.1.5 Is Lizard Bipedality Adaptive?: Part 2
14.2.1.6 Can Lizards Run Bipedally in a Controlled Way?
14.2.2 Occasional Bipedalism in Non-human Primates: Voluntary But Anatomically Constrained
14.2.2.1 Should We Infer that All NHPs Walk Bipedally in a Similar Way?
14.2.2.2 The Challenge of Walking Bipedally in NHPs
14.2.2.3 Bipedal Kinematics Among NHPs: Variability Within a Common BHBK Pattern
14.2.2.4 BHBK Posture as a Case of Mechanical Convergence?
14.2.3 Extant Habitual and Obligate Bipedalism: Anatomically Imposed and Constrained
14.2.3.1 The Bauplans: From the Basal Tetrapod to Birds and Humans
14.2.3.2 From Bauplans to Different Postural Stability Capacities
14.2.3.3 Phylogenetic Histories and Movement Repertoires
14.2.3.4 Is the Foot of Birds and Humans Convergent?
14.3 Mechanical Convergence in Extant Bipeds: Linking Occasional, Habitual and Obligate Bipedalism
References
Chapter 15: Aquatic Locomotion: Environmental Constraints That Drive Convergent Evolution
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Physical Characteristics of Water That Affect Swimming Performance
15.3 Convergent Design
15.3.1 Body Streamlining
15.3.2 Control Surfaces and Fin Shape
15.3.3 Integument
15.4 Swimming Performance
15.4.1 Swimming Speed
15.4.2 Swimming Mode
15.5 Porpoising
15.6 Thermoregulation
15.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 16: Convergent Evolution of Attachment Mechanisms in Aquatic Animals
16.1 Introduction
16.2 An Organism-Level Approach to Attachment Mechanisms in Aquatic Organisms
16.3 An Organ-Level Approach to Attachment Mechanisms in Aquatic Organisms (Macroscopic)
16.4 A Cell/Microstructure-Level Approach to Attachment Mechanisms in Aquatic Organisms (Microscopic)
16.5 A Molecule-Level Approach to Attachment Mechanisms in Aquatic Organisms (Nanoscopic)
16.6 Conclusion and Outlook
References
Chapter 17: Convergent Evolution: Theory and Practice for Bioinspiration
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Current Approaches to Bioinspiration
17.3 Limitations of Bioinspiration
17.3.1 Biodiversity
17.3.2 Evolutionary Constraints and Limitations
17.4 Convergent Evolution: An Opportunity to Integrate Evolutionary Constraints in Bioinspiration
17.5 Tools and Technologies to Advance the Future of Bioinspiration
17.5.1 Digitization of Natural History Collections
17.5.2 Virtual Functional Morphology
17.5.3 Additive Manufacturing
17.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 18: Conclusion and Perspectives: What Convergent Evolution of Animal Forms and Functions Says About the Predictability...
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Evolution of Brains and Behaviors
18.3 Convergence on Half-Center Organization Depends Upon Bilateral Symmetry
18.4 Dorsal Ventral Asymmetry Constrains the Evolution of Half-Center Oscillators
18.5 Cellular and Genetic Convergence in Oscillatory Circuits
18.6 Genetic Convergence in the Evolution of Echolocation
18.7 Genetic Convergence in the Evolution of Active Electrosensing in Fish
18.8 Summary and Conclusions
References