Cellular Vehicle-to-Everything (C-V2X)

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Authors
Abbreviations
Chapter 1: Overview
1.1 Background of V2X
1.1.1 The Application and Evolution of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in the Automotive Industry
1.1.1.1 Broadcast
1.1.1.2 Information Services
1.1.1.3 Assisted Driving
1.1.1.4 Automated Driving
1.1.2 The Application and Evolution of ICT in the Transportation Industry
1.1.3 Cooperative Vehicle Infrastructure System and Automated Driving Supported by V2X
1.1.4 V2X and C-V2X
1.2 Global Development Trend: Policies and Standardization
1.2.1 The International Policies
1.2.2 International Standardization Organization
1.2.2.1 3GPP
1.2.2.2 IEEE
1.2.2.3 ITU
1.2.2.4 ISO
1.2.2.5 ETSI
1.2.2.6 SAE
1.3 China´s Development Status Quo: Policies and Standardization
1.3.1 Policies and Planning
1.3.2 Formulating Standards
1.3.2.1 Chinese Standardization Organizations
1.3.2.2 The Latest Progress of Chinese C-V2X Standardization
1.4 About This Book
References
Chapter 2: The Requirements of V2X Applications
2.1 The Requirements of Basic V2X Applications
2.1.1 Road Safety Applications
2.1.1.1 Electronic Emergency Brake Light (EEBL)
2.1.1.2 Forward Collision Warning (FCW)
2.1.1.3 Blind Spot Warning/Lane Change Warning (BSW/ LCW)
2.1.1.4 Do Not Pass Warning (DNPW)
2.1.1.5 Intersection Movement Assist (IMA)
2.1.1.6 Control Loss Warning (CLW)
2.1.1.7 Left Turn Assist (LTA)
2.1.1.8 Summary
2.1.2 Traffic Efficiency Applications
2.1.2.1 Green Light Optimal Speed Advisory (GLOSA)
2.1.2.2 Emergency Vehicle Warning (EVW)
2.1.3 Infotainment Applications
2.2 The Requirements of Enhanced V2X Applications
2.3 Global Standardization for the V2X Applications
2.3.1 SAE
2.3.1.1 SAE J2735
2.3.1.2 SAE J2945/1
2.3.2 ETSI
2.3.3 3GPP
2.3.4 5GAA
2.3.5 China SAE (C-SAE)
2.3.6 IMT-2020 (5G) Promotion Group C-V2X Working Group
2.4 Summary
References
Chapter 3: V2X Network Architecture and Standards System
3.1 V2X Network Architecture
3.1.1 V2X Network Architecture from the Perspective of V2X Communications and Applications
3.1.2 V2X Network Architecture from the Perspective of CVIS
3.1.3 V2X Network Architecture from the Perspective of ITS
3.2 Technical Challenges of V2X
3.3 V2X Technology and Standards System
3.4 IEEE 802.11p
3.4.1 IEEE 802.11p Technology
3.4.1.1 Improvements of PHY
3.4.1.2 Improvements of MAC
3.4.2 Progress and Evolution of IEEE 802.11p Standards
3.5 C-V2X
3.5.1 Motivations, Opportunities, and Challenges of C-V2X
3.5.2 LTE-V2X Technology
3.5.2.1 R14 LTE-V2X Key Technical Features
3.5.2.2 R15 Enhanced LTE-V2X Key Technical Features
3.5.3 NR-V2X Technology
3.5.4 Progress and Evolution of C-V2X Standardization
3.6 Technical Comparisons of IEEE 802.11p and C-V2X
3.7 Comparisons of the Results of Simulation and Field Test of IEEE 802.11p and LTE-V2X
3.7.1 Simulation Results of NGMN V2X Task Force
3.7.2 Test Results of Open Road
3.8 Spectrum of IEEE 802.11p and C-V2X
3.9 Summary
References
Chapter 4: LTE-V2X Technology
4.1 Research Background and Technical Ideas
4.2 Technical Requirements
4.2.1 LTE-V2X Service Requirements
4.2.2 Technical Challenges of LTE-V2X
4.2.2.1 Network Architecture
4.2.2.2 Physical Channel Structure
4.2.2.3 Centralized Resource Allocation Method
4.2.2.4 Decentralized Resource Allocation Method
4.2.2.5 Synchronization Mechanism
4.2.2.6 Congestion Control Mechanism
4.2.2.7 V2X Communication Mechanism Based on Uu interface
4.3 LTE-V2X Communication Mode and Network Architecture
4.3.1 LTE-V2X Communication Mode
4.3.2 LTE-V2X Network Architecture
4.4 Radio Interface Protocol Stack
4.5 Key Technologies of the Physical Layer
4.5.1 Waveform, Time/Frequency Resource and Transmission Channel
4.5.1.1 Transmission Waveform
4.5.1.2 Time/Frequency Resource
4.5.1.3 Transmission Channel Process
4.5.2 Physical Channel Signal
4.5.2.1 Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
4.5.2.2 Demodulation Reference Signal (DMRS)
4.5.2.3 Physical Channel Mapping
4.5.3 Resource Pool
4.5.3.1 Definition and Configuration of Resource Pool
4.5.3.2 Frequency Domain Resource Pool
4.5.3.3 Time Domain Resource Pool
4.6 Resource Allocation Method
4.6.1 Introduction
4.6.2 Decentralized Resource Allocation Method (Mode 4)
4.6.2.1 Resource Allocation Method Supported by Mode 4
4.6.2.2 Sensing-Based Semi-persistent Resource Selection
4.6.2.3 Support of 20/50 ms Periodicity
4.6.2.4 Geographic Area Based Resource Allocation Method
4.6.2.5 Power Saving for Handheld UE
4.6.3 Centralized Resource Allocation Method (Mode 3)
4.7 Synchronization Mechanism
4.8 Quality of Service and Congestion Control
4.8.1 Quality of Service (QoS)
4.8.2 Congestion Control
4.9 LTE-V2X Enhancement on Uu
4.9.1 V2X Service Quality Indication
4.9.2 Uplink Semi-persistent Scheduling Enhancement
4.9.3 Downlink Broadcast Period Optimization
4.10 LTE-V2X Sidelink Enhancement
4.10.1 High-Order Modulation 64QAM
4.10.2 Carrier Aggregation
4.10.3 Transmission Delay Reduction
4.10.4 Mode 3 and Mode 4 Resource Pool Sharing
4.11 Summary
References
Chapter 5: NR-V2X Technology
5.1 NR-V2X Standardization Background
5.2 NR-V2X Deployment Scenarios
5.3 NR-V2X Generic Framework
5.3.1 NR-V2X Network Architecture
5.3.2 NR-V2X PC5 Protocol Stack and Channel Mapping
5.4 Unicast, Groupcast and Broadcast Communications in NR-V2X PC5
5.4.1 Broadcast Communication in NR-V2X PC5
5.4.2 Groupcast Communication in NR-V2X PC5
5.4.3 Unicast Communication in NR-V2X PC5
5.5 NR-V2X QoS Management
5.6 Physical Layer Technologies in NR-V2X Sidelink
5.6.1 Definitions on Waveform, Numerology, Bandwidth Part and Time-Frequency Resource in NR Sidelink
5.6.1.1 Waveform
5.6.1.2 Numerology
5.6.1.3 BWP (Bandwidth Part)
5.6.1.4 Time-Frequency Resource
5.6.2 Physical Layer Structure
5.6.2.1 Slot Structure
5.6.2.2 Physical Channels and Signals in NR-V2X
5.6.2.3 Multiplexing of Physical Channels Within a Slot
5.6.2.4 S-SSB Structure
5.6.2.5 Demodulation Reference Signal (DMRS)
5.6.2.6 CSI-RS
5.6.2.7 Phase-Tracking Reference Signal
5.6.3 Control Signaling Structure in NR Sidelink
5.6.4 Resource Pool Configuration of NR Sidelink
5.7 HARQ Feedback Mechanism in NR-V2X Sidelink
5.7.1 HARQ Feedback Mechanism in NR Sidelink Unicast Communication Mode
5.7.2 HARQ Feedback Mechanism in NR-V2X Groupcast Communication Mode
5.7.2.1 NACK-Based HARQ Feedback
5.7.2.2 ACK/NACK-Based HARQ ACK/NACK-Based Feedback
5.7.3 PSFCH Resource Determination Mechanism
5.7.3.1 PSFCH Candidate Resource Set Determination
5.7.3.2 PSFCH Transmission Resource Determination
5.7.4 PSFCH Resources Collision Avoidance
5.8 Resource Allocation Mechanism in NR-V2X Sidelink
5.8.1 Mode 1 Resource Allocation in NR-V2X Sidelink
5.8.2 Mode 2 Resource Allocation in NR-V2X Sidelink
5.8.2.1 Procedures of Mode 2 Resource Allocation
Trigger Condition(s) for Resource (Re-)selection
Step 1: Determining Initial Candidate Resource Set
Step 2: Resource Exclusion Operation
Step 3: Determining the Available Resource Set
Step 4: Selected Transmission Resource(s) Among the Determined Available Resource Set
5.8.2.2 Resource Re-evaluation and Pre-emption Operation
Re-Evaluation Mechanism
Resource Pre-emption Operation
5.8.2.3 Resource Indication and Reservation in SCI
5.9 Synchronization Mechanism in NR-V2X Sidelink
5.9.1 Synchronization Procedure in NR-V2X Sidelink
5.9.2 Resource Configuration of S-SSB
5.10 Power Control Mechanism in NR-V2X Sidelink
5.10.1 Downlink Pathloss Based Open-Loop Power Control
5.10.2 Sidelink Pathloss Based Open Loop Power Control
5.11 CSI Measurement and Feedback in NR-V2X Sidelink
5.12 Congestion Control in NR-V2X Sidelink
5.13 Cross-RAT Scheduling Mechanism
5.13.1 LTE Uu Control NR-V2X Sidelink
5.13.2 NR Uu Control LTE-V2X Sidelink
5.14 In-Device Coexistence Between NR-V2X and LTE-V2X
5.15 Summary
References
Chapter 6: Key Technologies Related to C-V2X Applications
6.1 C-V2X and Mobile Edge Computing
6.1.1 Overview of Mobile Edge Computing
6.1.1.1 MEC System Level
6.1.1.2 MEC Host Level
6.1.2 Application Scenarios of C-V2X and Mobile Edge Computing Integration
6.1.3 C-V2X and Mobile Edge Computing Integration Architecture
6.1.3.1 Radio Network Information Service (RNIS)
6.1.3.2 Location Service
6.1.3.3 Bandwidth Manager (BM) Service
6.1.3.4 Application Mobility Service (AMS)
6.2 C-V2X and 5G Network Slicing
6.2.1 Overview of 5G Network Slicing
6.2.2 5G Network Slice Supporting C-V2X Applications
6.3 C-V2X and High Definition Map (HDM)
6.3.1 Data in HD Maps
6.3.2 Production of HD Maps
6.3.2.1 Map Data Capture
6.3.2.2 Map Data Processing and Recognition
6.3.2.3 Verification and Release
6.3.3 HDM Maintenance and Update
6.4 C-V2X and High Accuracy Positioning
6.4.1 High Accuracy Positioning Requirements for C-V2X
6.4.2 System Architecture for RTK-Based GNSS High Accuracy Positioning
6.4.2.1 Reference Station
6.4.2.2 Communication Network
6.4.2.3 System Control Center
6.4.2.4 User Equipment
6.4.3 Key Technologies for RTK-Based GNSS High Accuracy Positioning
6.4.3.1 Broadcasting the High Accuracy GNSS Differential Correction Data through the Cellular Network User Plane
6.4.3.2 Broadcasting the High Accuracy GNSS Differential Correction Data through the Cellular Network Control Plane
6.4.4 Development Trend of High Accuracy Positioning
6.4.4.1 Challenges Faced by High Accuracy Positioning for C-V2X
6.4.4.2 Development Trend of High Accuracy Positioning in the C-V2X
6.5 Summary
References
Chapter 7: C-V2X Security Technology
7.1 Overview
7.2 C-V2X Security System Architecture
7.3 C-V2X Communication Security Technology
7.3.1 Overview of C-V2X Communication Security Technology
7.3.2 LTE-V2X Communication Layer Security Technology
7.3.3 NR-V2X Communication Layer Security Technology
7.4 C-V2X Application Layer Security Technology
7.4.1 Overview of Application Layer Security Technology
7.4.2 The Security System Architecture of C-V2X Application Layer
7.4.2.1 American Security Credential Management System
7.4.2.2 European C-ITS Security Credential Management System
7.4.2.3 C-V2X Security Management System in China
7.4.3 C-V2X Security Management Certificate
7.4.4 The Security Mechanism of C-V2X Application Layer
7.4.4.1 Enrollment Certificate Application Procedure
7.4.4.2 Application and Identity Certificate Application Process
7.4.4.3 Pseudonym Certificate Application Process
7.4.4.4 Certificate Revocation Process
7.4.5 Deployment Way of C-V2X Security Management System
7.4.5.1 Security Management System Deployment in V2V Application Scenarios Based on Pseudonymous Certificates
7.4.5.2 Deployment of Security Management System in I2V Application Scenario
7.4.5.3 Deployment of Security Management System in V2I Application Scenario
7.4.5.4 Security Management System Deployment in V2V Application Scenario Based on Application Certificate
7.5 C-V2X Data Security and Privacy Protection
7.6 Summary
References
Chapter 8: Spectrum Needs and Planning
8.1 Overview of ITS Spectrum Allocation
8.2 Study of C-V2X Spectrum Needs
8.2.1 Typical Road Safety Applications of Connected Vehicles
8.2.2 Analysis of Spectrum Needs for Road Safety Applications
8.2.2.1 Two Estimation Methods of Spectrum Needs Adopted by CCSA
The Method Based on Scheduling Mode
Traffic Model
Evaluation Scenarios
Urban Scenario
Highway Scenario
Analysis of LTE-V2X Spectrum Needs Based on Scheduling Mode
Traffic Load Mapping Method
V2V Traffic Model
Evaluation Scenarios
Urban Scenario
Highway Scenario
8.2.2.2 Summary of Spectrum Needs Study
8.3 Global ITS Spectrum Arrangements
8.3.1 The USA
8.3.2 Europe
8.3.3 China
8.3.4 Japan
8.3.5 Korea
8.3.6 Singapore
8.3.7 Summary
8.4 Prospects for NR-V2X Spectrum
References
Chapter 9: C-V2X Industrial Developments and Applications
9.1 C-V2X Ecosystem
9.2 C-V2X Industrial Alliances
9.2.1 5GAA
9.2.2 IMT-2020 (5G) Promotion Group C-V2X Working Group
9.3 C-V2X Interoperability Test
9.3.1 Progress in China
9.3.1.1 Three Layers ``Chipset, Terminals, OMEs´´ Interoperability V2X Application Demonstration in 2018
9.3.1.2 C-V2X ``Four Layers´´ Interoperability Application Demonstration in 2019
9.3.1.3 C-V2X ``New Four Layers´´ & Large-Scale Pilot Demonstration in 2020
9.3.1.4 C-V2X Cross-Industry (Shanghai, Suzhou and Wuxi) Pilot Demonstration (CAICT n.d.-b) in 2021
9.3.2 Global Progress
9.3.2.1 The First 5GAA C-V2X Interoperability (IOT) Test (5GAA 2019; DEKRA 2019) in 2019
9.3.2.2 The First ETSI C-V2X Plugtests & Second 5GAA IoT Test (Anon 2019d) in 2019
9.3.2.3 Second ETSI C-V2X Plugtests (ETSI 2020; Anon 2019e) in 2020
9.3.2.4 Third C-V2X PLUGTESTS in 2022
9.3.2.5 OmniAir Michigan Plugfest in 2021
9.4 C-V2X Demonstration and Pilot Development
9.4.1 Progress in China
9.4.2 Global Progress
9.4.2.1 5GAA Live Demo Event in Berlin (C-V2X 2019)
9.4.2.2 The Convex Project (The Convex Project n.d.; Anon 2020)
9.4.2.3 C-V2X Communication Technology Deployment in United States
Work Zone and Vulnerable Road User Use Case
Traffic Signal Information Use Case
9.5 C-V2X Conformity Assessment Scheme
9.5.1 Progress in China
9.5.2 Progress in Other Countries/Regions
9.5.2.1 The EU
9.5.2.2 The U.S.
9.5.3 5GAA & GCF C-V2X Certification Program
9.6 Commercial Practice
9.6.1 BRT Application in Xiamen
9.6.1.1 Background & Application Requirements
9.6.1.2 Application Scenarios
Real-Time Vehicle-Road Coordination
Intelligent Vehicle Speed Strategy
Safe and Precise Parking
Collision Avoidance beyond Visual Range
9.6.2 Highway Scenario-Shiyu Highway Smart Highway Project Based on C-V2X
9.6.2.1 Background & Application Requirements
9.6.2.2 Deployment Plan
9.7 Summary
References
Chapter 10: Prospects for C-V2X Applications and Technology Evolution
10.1 Prospects for C-V2X Applications
10.1.1 Capability of C-V2X for Intelligent Transportation and Automated Driving Applications
10.1.2 C-V2X Enabled Applications for Intelligent Driving and Intelligent Transportation
10.1.3 Envisioned Application Phases of C-V2X
10.2 Prospects for C-V2X Technologies
10.2.1 Channel Modeling for V2X Wireless Communications
10.2.1.1 Hybrid Geometry-Based Deterministic and Stochastic Modeling Approach (Dynamic Scatterers/Vehicular Traffic Density)
10.2.1.2 Measurement and Modeling of mmWave Time-Varying V2X Channels
10.2.1.3 Three-Dimensional Space-Time-Frequency Non-Stationary Modeling
10.2.1.4 Multipath Tracking and Dynamic Clustering Analysis in Highly Dynamic Scenarios
10.2.1.5 Channel Prediction Based on Machine Learning and Scene Recognition
10.2.1.6 Vehicular Channel Modeling Framework for Integrated Communication and Sensing Systems
10.2.2 High-Definition Positioning Based on 5G and B5G
10.2.2.1 Innovation of B5G Wireless Network Architecture
10.2.2.2 Positioning Enhancements Based on B5G Signals
10.2.2.3 High Accuracy Measurement Algorithm and Multi-Level Fusion Algorithm of Positioning
10.2.2.4 Seamless Indoor and Outdoor Positioning Based on Collaborative Positioning
10.2.2.5 Carrier Phase Positioning Technology Based on 5G Signals
10.2.3 Radar-Communication Integration in V2X
10.2.3.1 Communication-Aided Radar Detection
10.2.3.2 Radar-Aided Communication Network
10.2.3.3 Joint Allocation of Heterogeneous Resources
10.2.3.4 Fast Channel Estimation and Beam Alignment
10.2.3.5 Joint Cross-Layer Optimization
10.2.3.6 Model-Assisted Sensing and Learning
10.2.4 Integration of C-V2X and MEC
10.2.4.1 On-Demand Deployment of Edge Resources
10.2.4.2 Joint Scheduling of Communication and Computation Resources
10.2.4.3 Coordinated Mobility Management for High Mobility Scenario
10.2.5 Block-Chain Based V2X Security
10.2.5.1 Client-Oriented Fine-grained Dynamic Access Control Mechanism
10.2.5.2 Cryptography-Based Communication Protocol Assists to Secure Data Transmission of Blockchain
10.2.5.3 Distributed Key Distribution for Communication Protocols
10.2.5.4 Design of Lightweight Consensus Mechanism
10.2.5.5 Enrichment and Improvement of the Security Architecture of the V2X Based on Blockchain
10.3 Summary
References