Carbon Quantum Dots for Sustainable Energy and Optoelectronics

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Carbon Quantum Dots for Sustainable Energy and Optoelectronics
Copyright
List of contributors
Contents
Preface
1 Photophysical properties of carbon quantum dots
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Optical absorption properties of carbon quantum dots
1.3 Factors influencing the photoluminescence properties of carbon quantum dots
1.3.1 Quantum confinement effect
1.3.2 Doping nonmetallic heteroatoms
1.3.3 Local heterogeneity originated from heteroatom-mediated surface defects
1.3.4 Influence of edge states
1.3.5 Red edge effect
1.3.6 Surface defect states
1.3.7 Aggregation-induced emission in carbon quantum dots
1.3.7.1 Effect of solvent polarity
1.3.7.2 Effect of material concentration
1.3.7.3 Effect of added metal ions
1.3.8 Förster resonance energy transfer
1.3.9 Photoinduced electron transfer
1.3.10 Electroluminescence of carbon dots
1.4 Conclusions and future aspect
References
2 The physical and chemical properties of carbon dots via computational modeling
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Different carbon dots
2.3 Computational methods applied to study the properties of carbon dots
2.4 Theoretical studies of different properties of carbon quantum dots
2.4.1 Electronic structure
2.4.2 Optical properties
2.4.3 Electrocatalytic properties
2.4.4 Transport properties
2.4.5 Kondo effect in carbon quantum dots
2.5 Summary and outlook
References
3 Synthesis of carbon quantum dots
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Carbon quantum dots
3.1.1.1 Structure of carbon quantum dots
3.1.1.2 Principles of synthesis
3.2 Basic techniques for carbon quantum dot preparation
3.2.1 Top-down approach
3.2.1.1 Physical methods
Arc discharge method
Laser ablation
Plasma treatment
3.2.1.2 Chemical methods
Electrochemical synthesis
Chemical ablation/oxidation
3.2.2 Bottom-up approach
3.2.2.1 Microwave-assisted method
3.2.2.2 Hydrothermal method
3.2.2.3 Ultrasound-assisted method
3.3 Conclusion
References
Further reading
4 Characterization and physical properties of carbon quantum dots
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Carbon quantum dots
4.1.2 Structure of carbon quantum dots
4.1.2.1 Chemical and electronic structures of carbon quantum dots
4.1.3 Types
4.1.3.1 Hydrophobic carbon quantum dots
4.1.3.2 Hydrophilic carbon quantum dots
Undoped carbon quantum dots
Doped carbon quantum dots
4.2 Physical properties
4.2.1 Physiochemical properties (catalytic)
4.2.2 Optical properties
4.2.2.1 Absorption
4.2.2.2 Photoluminescence
Fluorescence
Phosphorescence
4.2.2.3 Electroluminescence
4.2.2.4 Up-converted photoluminescence
4.2.3 Photoinduced electron transfer
4.2.4 Biological properties
4.3 Characterization
4.3.1 Structural characterization
4.3.1.1 X-ray powder diffraction
4.3.1.2 Scanning electron microscope
4.3.1.3 Transmission electron microscope
4.3.1.4 Raman spectroscopy
4.3.1.5 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
4.3.1.6 Fourier-transform Infrared
4.3.1.7 Atomic force microscopy
4.3.1.8 UV–vis spectra
4.3.2 Photophysical analysis
4.3.2.1 Photoluminescence
4.3.2.2 Fluorescence
4.3.2.3 Forster resonance energy transfer
4.3.3 Stability of carbon quantum dots
4.4 Conclusions
References
5 Surface engineering of carbon quantum dots
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Carbon nanotube versus carbon quantum dots
5.1.2 Fundamentals of surface engineering in carbogenic allotropes
5.2 Methodology
5.2.1 Hydrothermal carbonization
5.2.1.1 Amino-functionalized fluorescent carbon quantum dots
5.2.1.2 Branched polyethylenimine functionalized carbon quantum dots
5.2.1.3 Amino-functionalized carbon quantum dots
5.2.1.4 Spiropyran-functionalized carbon quantum dots
5.2.2 Microwave-assisted pyrolysis
5.2.2.1 Hyperbranched polyethylenimine and isobutyric amide functionalized C-dots
5.2.2.2 Organosilane functionalized carbon quantum dots
5.2.2.3 Organic dye-functionalized carbon quantum dot
5.2.3 Sol–gel reaction
5.2.4 Condensation reaction
5.2.4.1 Europium-adjusted carbon dots
5.2.5 Oxidation–polymerization reaction
5.3 Conclusion
References
6 Photodetector applications of carbon and graphene quantum dots
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Synthesis of carbon quantum dots and graphene quantum dots
6.2.1 Top-down synthesis process
6.2.2 Bottom-up synthesis process
6.3 Optical absorption, emission, and electrical properties
6.4 Optoelectronics applications of carbon quantum dots and graphene quantum dots
6.5 Photodetector applications of carbon quantum dots and graphene quantum dots
6.5.1 FET-based photodetectors using carbon quantum dots and graphene quantum dots
6.5.2 Carbon quantum dots or graphene quantum dots-sensitized nanomaterial-based photodetectors
6.5.3 Polymer nanocomposite-based photodetectors
6.6 Conclusions
References
7 Photovoltaic application of carbon quantum dots
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Carbon quantum dots in dye-sensitized solar cells
7.2.1 Carbon quantum dots as sensitizer
7.2.2 Carbon quantum dots as counter electrode
7.3 Carbon quantum dots in organic solar cells
7.4 Carbon quantum dots in solid-state solar cells
7.5 Carbon quantum dots in perovskite solar cells
7.6 Carbon quantum dots in all-weather solar cells
7.7 Summary and perspective
Acknowledgments
References
8 Light-emitting diode application of carbon quantum dots
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Synthesis methods of functionalized carbon quantum dots
8.2.1 Electrochemical synthesis
8.2.2 Arc discharge
8.2.3 Pulsed laser ablation/passivation technique
8.2.4 Microwave-assisted synthesis
8.2.5 Hydrothermal and solvothermal synthesis
8.3 Optical properties of carbon quantum dots
8.3.1 Optical absorption
8.3.2 Photoluminescence emissions from ultraviolet to near-infrared regions
8.3.2.1 Photoluminescence emission due to quantum confinement effect
8.3.2.2 Photoluminescence emission due to surface passivation and functionalization effect
8.3.2.3 Up-conversion photoluminescence
8.3.3 Electroluminescence
8.4 Carbon quantum dots device applications
8.4.1 Light-emitting diodes
8.4.2 Optical gain and lasing
8.5 Summary
References
9 Nanoelectronic applications of carbon quantum dots
9.1 General introduction
9.2 Memory devices
9.2.1 Classifications of memory devices
9.2.2 Random access memory
9.3 Transistors
9.3.1 Basics of transistor
9.3.2 Carbon quantum dots used in transistor applications
9.4 Sensors
9.5 Carbon quantum dot laser
Reference
10 Carbon quantum dot-based nanosensors
10.1 Introduction to nanosensors
10.2 Chemical sensing
10.2.1 Fluorescence-based chemical sensing
10.2.1.1 Reasons for strong emission characteristics in nanoparticles
10.2.2 Chemical sensors: nanoparticles as superior components
10.2.3 CQDs: fluorescent sensor material
10.2.3.1 Fluorescence from CQDs
Radiative recombination in small nano-domains
Free zigzag sites with a carbine-like triplet ground state
10.2.3.2 The basis of fluorescence sensing by CQDs
Quenching and sensing
10.2.4 pH sensor
10.2.4.1 Role of surface groups in pH sensor applications of CQDs
10.2.4.2 Few more examples of pH sensing with CQDs
10.2.5 Effect of solvent: sensing dielectric of surrounding medium
10.2.5.1 Few more examples of solvent sensing
10.2.6 Doped CQDs in sensors: metal ion detection
10.2.6.1 Red emitting carbon dots for specific metal ion detection
10.2.7 Gas sensing with conducting carbon dots
10.2.7.1 Designing of gas sensors using carbonaceous nanomaterials
10.2.7.2 Effect of CQDs on the electrical properties of conducting polymers
10.2.8 A VOC sensor based on CQDs
10.2.8.1 Nanotechnology applications using CQDs for Gas/VOC sensing: a case study
10.3 Conclusion
References
11 Carbon dots: biomedical applications
11.1 Carbon dots: structure and functionalization
11.2 Biosynthesis of carbon dots
11.3 Bioimaging applications of carbon dots
11.3.1 Carbon dots: optical properties
11.4 Biomedical applications of carbon dots
11.4.1 Drug delivery
11.4.2 Crossing blood-brain barrier
11.4.3 Gene delivery
11.5 Biosensing applications using carbon dots
11.6 Future scope and challenges
References
12 Bioimaging applications of carbon quantum dots
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Development of various bioimaging modalities
12.3 Requirement of imaging agents
12.4 Nanomaterials as imaging agents
12.5 Carbon quantum dots
12.6 Synthesis and modifications in carbon quantum dots
12.6.1 Chemical ablation
12.6.2 Electrochemical method
12.6.3 Laser ablation
12.6.4 Arc Discharge method
12.6.5 Hydrothermal method
12.6.6 Microwave irradiation
12.6.7 Pyrolysis method
12.7 Surface activation
12.7.1 Surface passivation
12.7.2 Surface functionalization
12.7.3 Doping
12.8 Properties of carbon quantum dots
12.8.1 Fluorescence
12.8.2 Quantum yield
12.9 cDot in bioimaging
12.9.1 In vitro imaging
12.9.2 In vivo imaging
12.9.3 Single-molecule imaging
12.10 Conclusion
References
13 Photocatalytic applications of carbon quantum dots for wastewater treatment
13.1 Overview on advanced oxidation process and photocatalysis
13.2 Mechanism of photocatalysis
13.3 Photocatalysts material
13.4 Binary metal oxides
13.5 Metal sulfides
13.6 Fundamentals of carbon quantum dots
13.7 Roles of carbon quantum dots in photocatalysis
13.7.1 Broaden the optical absorption range of photocatalyst
13.7.2 Improved charge separation and electron transfer
13.7.3 Allocate additional surface for adsorption and reaction
13.8 Synthesis route of carbon quantum dots
13.8.1 Top-down method
13.8.2 Bottom-up method
13.9 Hydrothermal treatment of carbon quantum dots
13.10 Watermelon rinds potential as carbon precursor
13.11 Application of carbon quantum dots in photocatalysis
13.11.1 Application of carbon quantum dots-based composite in water purification
References
14 Current prospects of carbon-based nanodots in photocatalytic CO2 conversion
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Synthetic approaches and optical properties of carbon quantum dots
14.2.1 Carbon dots and graphene quantum dots: an overview
14.3 Carbon-based quantum dots in CO2 photoconversion
14.3.1 Photocatalytic CO2 reduction
14.3.2 Photophysical characteristics and CO2 photoconversion with carbon-based catalysts
14.4 Concluding remarks
Acknowledgments
References
15 Carbon quantum dots and its composites for electrochemical energy storage applications
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Fundamentals of supercapacitors and batteries
15.2.1 Fundamentals of supercapacitors
15.2.2 Fundamentals of batteries
15.3 Desired properties of carbon quantum dots for charge storage applications
15.3.1 Structural properties
15.3.2 Electrical properties
15.3.3 Optical properties
15.4 Carbon quantum dots for supercapacitors
15.4.1 Carbon quantum dots—inorganic hybrid for supercapacitors
15.4.2 Carbon quantum dots—organic hybrid supercapacitors
15.4.3 Graphene quantum dots
15.5 Carbon quantum dots for batteries
15.5.1 Carbon quantum dots in lithium-ion and sodium-ion batteries
15.5.2 Carbon quantum dots in potassium-ion batteries
15.5.3 Carbon quantum dots in lithium-sulfur batteries
15.5.4 Carbon quantum dots in zinc-ion batteries
15.5.4.1 Outlook
References
16 Magnetic and nanophotonics applications of carbon quantum dots
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Applications
16.2.1 Magnetic applications
16.2.1.1 Carbon quantum dots decorated magnetic nanoparticles
16.2.1.2 Carbon quantum dots encapsulated 1D magnetic nanostructures
16.2.2 Nanophotonic applications and single-photon emission
16.2.2.1 Light-emitting diodes
16.2.2.2 Photovoltaic solar cell
16.2.2.3 Memory devices
16.2.2.4 Chiral photonics and twistronics
16.2.2.5 Toward single/few photons source and cavity-assisted photonics
16.3 Summary and future perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
17 Carbon quantum dots: An overview and potential applications in terahertz domain
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Characteristic lengths
17.3 Quantum dot
17.3.1 Density of states of electrons in quantum dots
17.4 Fabrication techniques of quantum dots
17.4.1 Quantum dots based on II–VI compound semiconductors
17.4.2 Self-assembled quantum dots
17.5 Optical properties of quantum dots
17.5.1 Optical properties of indirect gap nanocrystal
17.6 Applications of carbon quantum dot in the biomedical field
17.6.1 Optical imaging
17.6.2 Photoacoustic imaging
17.6.3 Drug delivery
17.6.4 Crossing blood–brain barrier
17.6.5 Gene delivery
17.7 Carbon nanostructures in terahertz domain
17.7.1 Terahertz time-domain spectroscopy for generation of coherent radiation
17.7.2 Time-resolved spectroscopy and terahertz conductivity in carbon nanostructures
17.8 Conclusion and future prospect
References
18 Nanocarbon-based single-electron transistors as electrometer
18.1 Theory
18.1.1 Introduction to single-electron transistor
18.1.2 Origin of coulomb blockade oscillation
18.2 Application: single-electron transistor as an electrometer
18.2.1 Measuring inverse compressibility
18.2.2 Experimental realization of a single-electron transistor electrometer: comparing aluminum single-electron transistor...
18.3 Reviewing published work
18.3.1 Application of Al-based single-electron transistor
18.3.1.1 Electrical imaging of the quantum hall state
18.3.1.2 Mapping graphene using a scanning single-electron transistor
18.3.2 Application of carbon nanotube-based single-electron transistor
18.3.2.1 Studying the origin of anomalous piezoelectricity in LAO/STO
18.3.2.2 Imaging the spatial distribution of voltage drop and current density in graphene/hexagonal boron nitride
18.4 Conclusion
References
19 Nanodiamonds for advanced photonic and biomedical applications
19.1 Introduction to nanodiamond photonics
19.1.1 Optical emission from diamond
19.1.2 ND photonic applications
19.2 NDs for biomedical applications
19.2.1 Cancer therapy applications
19.2.2 Biomedical imaging applications
19.2.2.1 NDs as contrast agents in MRI
19.2.2.2 NDs as photostable markers in STED
19.2.2.3 NDs as contrast agents for photoacoustic imaging
19.3 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
20 Future perspectives of carbon quantum dots
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Future perspectives of CQDs
20.2.1 Luminescent doped/co-doped CQDs for optical sensing
20.3 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Index