Carbon Dots in Analytical Chemistry: Detection and Imaging

Front Cover
Carbon Dots in Analytical Chemistry
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
Preface
1 Synthetic strategies toward developing carbon dots via top-down approach
1.1 Carbon dots—introduction
1.1.1 Carbon dots prepared by arc-discharge method
1.1.2 Carbon dots prepared by laser ablation
1.1.3 Carbon dots prepared by electrochemical method
1.1.4 Carbon dots prepared by chemical oxidation method
1.1.5 Carbon dots prepared by ball milling method
1.2 Conclusion
References
2 Bottom-up approaches for the preparation of carbon dots
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Bottom-up approaches for the fabrication of CDs
2.2.1 Hydrothermal method
2.2.2 Solvothermal method
2.2.3 Pyrolysis method
2.2.4 Carbonization method
2.2.5 Microwave method
2.3 Conclusion and future perspectives
References
3 An overview of optical, physical, biological, and catalytic properties of carbon dots
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Optical properties of CDs
3.2.1 Absorption
3.2.2 Phosphorescence
3.2.3 Photoluminescence
3.2.4 Chemiluminescence
3.2.5 Electrochemical luminescence
3.2.6 Up-conversion luminescence
3.3 Physical properties of CDs
3.3.1 Quantum yield
3.3.2 Crystallinity
3.3.3 Photostability
3.4 Biological properties of CDs
3.4.1 Cytotoxicity
3.5 Catalytic properties
3.6 Effect of doping
3.7 Conclusion and future perspectives
References
4 Characterization of carbon dots
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Structure of CDs
4.3 Surface passivation and functionalization of CDs
4.4 Doping in CDs
4.5 Purification of CDs
4.6 Characterization techniques of CDs
4.6.1 UV–vis spectroscopy
4.6.2 PL spectra
4.6.2.1 Quantum yield measurements
4.6.3 FT-IR spectral analysis
4.6.4 Raman spectroscopy
4.6.5 DLS measurements
4.6.6 NMR spectroscopy
4.6.7 MS analysis
4.6.7.1 Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry
4.6.7.2 Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry
4.6.7.3 Electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry
4.6.8 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
4.6.9 Energy-dispersive spectroscopy
4.6.9.1 Microscopic techniques
4.6.10 SEM and HR-TEM analyses
4.6.11 AFM and STM analyses
4.6.12 XRD analysis
4.6.13 Thermogravimetric analysis
4.7 Conclusions
References
5 Carbon dots in sample preparation
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Applications of carbon dots in sample preparation
5.2.1 Solid-phase extraction
5.2.2 Dispersive solid-phase extraction
5.2.3 Magnetic solid-phase extraction
5.2.4 Solid-phase microextraction
5.3 Conclusions
References
6 Carbon dots in separation science
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Properties of carbon dots related to separation processes
6.3 Applications
6.3.1 Application of carbon dots in magnetic separation
6.3.2 Application of carbon dots in immunomagnetic separation
6.3.3 Application of carbon dots in chromatographic separation
6.3.3.1 Carbon dots for high-performance liquid chromatography
6.3.3.2 Carbon dots for gas chromatography
6.3.4 Application of carbon dots in gel electrophoresis and capillary electrophoresis
6.3.5 Application of carbon dots in sample preparation
6.3.5.1 Carbon dots for solid-phase extraction
6.3.5.2 Carbon dots for magnetic solid-phase extraction
6.3.5.3 Carbon dots for MDSPME
6.4 Conclusion and future prospects
Conflict of interest
References
7 Carbon dots for electrochemical analytical methods
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Carbon dots: synthesis and properties
7.3 Carbon dots for electrochemical measurements
7.4 Electrochemical sensing for metal and anionic ions using carbon dots–based materials
7.5 Electrochemical sensing for H2O2 using carbon dots–based materials
7.6 Electrochemical sensing for organic-based analytes using carbon dots–based materials
7.7 Advantages of carbon dots–based electrodes
7.8 Conclusion
References
8 Carbon dots-based fluorescence spectroscopy for metal ion sensing
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Synthesis of carbon dots
8.3 Metal ions detection
8.4 Carbon dots as fluorescence probe for the detection of biological metal ions
8.5 Carbon dots as fluorescence probe for toxic metal ions
8.6 Carbon dots as fluorescence probe for precious metal ions
8.7 Conclusions
References
9 Carbon dots-based fluorescence spectrometry for pesticides sensing
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Carbon dots–based fluorescence spectrometry for pesticides sensing
9.2.1 Sensing of fungicides
9.2.2 Sensing of herbicides
9.2.3 Sensing of insecticides
9.2.4 Sensing of other pesticides
9.3 Conclusions and future perspectives
References
10 Carbon dots-based electrochemical sensors
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Properties of graphene quantum dots and carbon quantum dots
10.2.1 Graphene quantum dots
10.2.2 Carbon quantum dots
10.3 Applications to biosensing
10.3.1 Electrochemical sensors and substrate materials in electrochemical sensing
10.3.1.1 Alteration procedure
10.3.1.2 Electrocatalysis function
10.3.1.2.1 Hydrogen peroxide reduction
10.3.1.2.2 Organic redox reaction
10.3.1.2.3 Amino acids
10.3.1.2.4 Heavy metal ions
10.3.2 Carriers for material investigation
10.3.3 Electrochemical operation
10.3.4 Metal ions sensing
10.3.5 Small molecule sensing
10.3.6 Protein detection
10.3.7 DNA/RNA detection
10.4 Conclusions and key challenges to address
10.5 Future signs
References
11 Recent advancements of carbon dots in analytical techniques
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Carbon dot–assisted enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
11.3 Carbon dot–assisted surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy
11.4 Carbon dot–assisted paper-based analytical devices
11.4.1 Carbon dot-based paper chips
11.4.2 Carbon dot–based microfluidic paper chips
11.5 Carbon dots in chemiluminescence
11.5.1 Nanoparticle-based chemiluminescence
11.5.2 Carbon dots in chemiluminescence
11.6 Carbon dots for pH-responsive fluorescence sensors
11.7 Carbon dot–based nanothermometers to sense temperature
11.8 Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry
11.8.1 Carbon dot-assisted matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry for small molecules
11.9 Summary and future perspectives
References
12 Carbon dots in hydrogels and their applications
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Preparation of carbon dots composite hydrogel
12.3 Properties of carbon dots composite hydrogel
12.4 Emerging applications of carbon dots composite hydrogel
12.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
13 Carbon dots as adsorbents for removal of toxic chemicals
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Synthesis methods of carbon dots
13.3 Purification methods of carbon dots
13.4 Characterization techniques for identification of carbon dots and implication of them for various applications
13.5 Applications of carbon dots
13.5.1 General applications
13.5.2 Carbon dots as adsorbents for toxic chemicals removal
13.5.2.1 Basics of adsorption
13.5.2.2 Recent developments of carbon dots as adsorbent for pollutants removal
13.5.2.3 Adsorption mechanism of carbon dots for pollutants removal
13.5.2.3.1 Organic pollutant adsorptive removal mechanism of carbon dots
13.5.2.3.2 Inorganic pollutant adsorptive removal mechanism of carbon dots
13.6 Conclusion and future perspective
Acknowledgments
References
14 Heteroatom/metal ion-doped carbon dots for sensing applications
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Synthesis of heteroatom-doped carbon dots
14.3 Dopant
14.4 Single atom doping
14.4.1 Heteroatom/nonmetal doping
14.4.1.1 N-doped carbon dots
14.4.1.2 S-doped carbon dots
14.4.1.3 P-doped carbon dots
14.4.1.4 B-doped carbon dots
14.4.1.5 Halogen-doped carbon dots
14.4.2 Metal atom doping
14.5 Multiatom co-doping
14.5.1 Heteroatom/nonmetal co-doping
14.5.1.1 N-S co-doping
14.5.1.2 N-P co-doping
14.5.1.3 N-B co-doping
14.5.2 Heteroatom-metal co-doping
14.5.3 Metal–metal co-doping
14.6 Properties of heteroatom-doped carbon dots
14.6.1 Optical properties
14.6.2 Electrochemical properties
14.7 Heteroatom-doped carbon dots as sensors
14.7.1 Fluorescent sensors
14.7.1.1 Cations
14.7.1.2 Anions
14.7.1.3 Biological and organic molecules
14.7.1.4 pH
14.7.1.5 Temperature
14.7.2 Electrochemical sensors
14.7.2.1 Cations
14.7.2.2 Biological and organic molecules
14.8 Conclusion and future challenges
References
15 Analytical applications of carbon dots in forensics, security, and other related fields
15.1 Forensic science
15.2 Techniques involved in forensic analysis
15.3 Nanoforensics
15.3.1 Carbon quantum dots
15.3.2 Structural design of carbon quantum dots
15.4 Carbon quantum dots: forensic applications
15.4.1 Latent fingerprint enhancement
15.4.2 Anticounterfeit
15.4.3 Molecular sensing
15.4.3.1 Detection of illicit drugs
15.4.3.2 Detection of DNA
15.4.3.3 Detection of explosive compounds
15.4.3.4 Detection of toxic chemicals
15.5 Challenges on the carbon dot-based analytical methods for forensic analysis
15.5.1 Heavy metal ion detection method
15.5.2 Fingerprint detection method
15.5.3 Carbon dot-based material for anticounterfeit identification
15.6 Conclusion
References
16 Carbon dots as smart optical sensors
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Fluorescence-based sensing of trace amount of water
16.3 Carbon dots with red emission for dual sensing of In3+ and Pd2+ in water
16.4 Fluorescent carbon nanoparticles for sensing synthetic food colorant
16.5 Concluding remarks
References
17 Synthesis of carbon dots from waste materials: analytical applications
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Materials and methodologies
17.2.1 Synthesis of CDs
17.2.1.1 From kitchen and food wastes
17.2.2 Pyrolysis
17.2.3 Microwave-assisted technique
17.2.4 Hydrothermal method
17.2.4.1 From animal wastes
17.2.4.2 From agricultural wastes
17.2.4.3 From plastic wastes
17.2.4.4 From paper wastes
17.3 Characterization
17.3.1 Optical characterization
17.3.2 IR, Raman, XPS, and XRD spectroscopy
17.3.3 Morphology of CDs
17.4 Applications
17.4.1 CDs in drug delivery
17.4.2 CDs as sensing and tracing probes
17.4.3 CDs as anticancer agents
17.4.4 CDs in quenching
17.4.5 CDs in detection
17.4.6 CDs in photocatalysis
17.4.7 CDs in anticounterfeiting ink and film
17.5 Conclusion
References
18 Carbon dots as an effective material in enzyme immobilization for sensing applications
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Methods of enzyme immobilization
18.3 Enzyme–carbon dots physiochemical mechanisms: a synergistic effect
18.4 CDs-based enzymatic biosensors
18.4.1 Electrochemical biosensor
18.4.2 Optical biosensor
18.5 Advantages of enzyme immobilization
18.5.1 Enzyme stabilization
18.5.2 Enzyme recovery and reusability
18.5.3 Bioreactor flexibility
18.6 Enzyme immobilized carbon dots for sensing applications
18.6.1 Preparation and characterization of N/CQD/chitosan/GOx
18.6.2 Preparation and characterization of F, N/CQD/laccase
18.7 Current challenges
18.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
19 Ultra-small carbon dots for sensing and imaging of chemical species
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Ultra-small CDs for sensing chemical species
19.2.1 Ultra-small CDs for sensing ionic species
19.2.2 Ultra-small CDs for sensing nonionic molecules
19.3 Ultra-small CDs: functionalization and imaging applications
19.3.1 Ultra-small CDs functionalization for imaging applications
19.3.1.1 Ultra-small CDs for bioimaging applications
References
20 Carbon dot-based microscopic techniques for cell imaging
20.1 Fluorescence microscopic techniques for carbon dot–based cell imaging
20.2 Carbon dots as fluorescent nanoprobes for cell imaging
20.3 Carbon dots as smart nanoprobes for diverse targeted cell imaging
20.4 Conclusions
References
21 Carbon nanomaterials-based diagnostic tools
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Carbon nanotubes
21.2.1 CNTs in lab on chip devices
21.2.2 CNTs in bioimaging
21.2.3 CNTs in point-of-care diagnostics
21.2.4 CNTs in biosensing
21.3 Carbon dots
21.3.1 CDs in LOC devices
21.3.2 CDs in bioimaging
21.3.3 CDs in point-of-care diagnostics
21.3.4 CDs in biosensing
21.4 Other carbon-based nanomaterials
21.4.1 Other carbon-based nanomaterials for LOC devices
21.4.2 Other carbon-based nanomaterials for bioimaging
21.4.3 Other carbon-based nanomaterials for point-of-care diagnostics
21.4.4 Other carbon-based nanomaterials for biosensing
21.5 Conclusion and future perspective
References
22 Carbon dots in food analysis
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Analytical applications of carbon dots in food matrix
22.2.1 Detection of pesticides in food
22.2.2 Detection of veterinary drug
22.2.3 Detection of metal ion in food samples
22.2.4 Detection of hazards in food processing
22.3 Summary and trends
References
23 Multicolor carbon dots for imaging applications
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Bioimaging
23.3 Quantum yield
23.4 Bioimaging agents for in vivo and in vitro imaging
23.5 Bioimaging applications
23.6 Conclusion and futuristic roadmap
Acknowledgment
Conflict of interest
References
24 Synthesis and applications of carbon dots from waste biomass
24.1 Introduction
24.2 C-dot synthesis from waste biomass
24.3 Methods for the synthesis of C-dots from biomass waste
24.3.1 Pyrolysis
24.3.2 Solvothermal method
24.3.3 Ultrasonic-assisted method
24.3.4 Microwave-assisted method
24.3.5 Hydrothermal carbonization
24.3.6 Other synthesis methods
24.4 Properties of C-dots derived from biomass waste
24.4.1 Structural property
24.4.2 Optical property
24.4.3 Fluorescence property
24.4.4 Upconversion fluorescence property
24.4.5 Cytotoxicity and biocompatibility
24.4.6 Catalytic activity
24.5 Factors affecting properties of C-dots
24.5.1 Thermal impact of raw materials
24.5.2 Effect of synthesis temperature
24.5.3 Effect of reaction time
24.5.4 Effect of pH
24.6 Biosynthesis of CDs from waste biomass
24.6.1 Application in photocatalytic activity
24.6.2 Biodegradable green C-dots used to detect silver
24.6.3 Application in sensing process
24.6.4 Application in solar cells
24.6.5 Application in drug delivery
24.6.6 Application in sensing of pollutant and toxic chemicals in food
24.7 Conclusions and future outlook
References
25 White light generation and fabrication of warm light-emitting diodes using carbon nanodots and their composites: a brief...
25.1 Introduction
25.2 White light generation and warm white light-emitting diodes
25.3 Designing white light-emitting diodes with carbon nanodots and their composites
25.4 Applications of white light-emitting diodes in analytical/ biomedical sciences
25.5 Challenges in white light-emitting diode–based carbon nanodots
25.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
26 Catalytic applications of carbon dots
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Carbon dot photocatalysts
26.3 Catalytic applications
26.3.1 Photocatalysis in water treatment
26.3.2 Electrocatalysis
26.3.3 Industrial catalysis for fine chemical synthesis
26.3.4 Water splitting and hydrogen evolution
26.3.5 Peroxidase-like catalysis
26.4 Summary and future prospects
References
Index
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