Biomass, Biofuels, Biochemicals: Biochemicals and Materials Production from Sustainable Biomass Resources

Front Cover
Biomass, Biofuels, Biochemicals
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
Preface
1 Biochemicals and materials production: an introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Enzymatic biomass conversion
1.3 Thermochemical biomass conversion
1.4 Chemocatalytic biomass conversion
1.5 Biomass-derived materials
1.6 Green techniques developed for biomass valorization
1.7 Conclusions and perspectives
References
2 Enzymatic production of methane and its purification
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sources of methane
2.2.1 Anaerobic decomposition of organic waste
2.2.2 Paddy field
2.2.3 Charcoal combustion and biomass burning
2.2.4 Wastewater treatment
2.2.5 Emission from livestock
2.2.6 Oceans
2.2.7 Fossil fuels
2.2.8 Natural wetlands
2.2.9 Termites
2.2.10 Methane hydrates
2.3 Methane fermentation process
2.4 Enzymes in methane fermentation process
2.4.1 Hydrolytic and acidogenic enzymes
2.4.2 Acetogenic enzymes
2.4.3 Methanogenic enzymes
2.5 Biological aspects of methane fermentation
2.6 Principles of methane fermentation process
2.6.1 Anaerobic digestion process
2.6.2 Effects of enzyme hydrolysis and acidogenesis
2.6.3 Effects of acetogenesis and methanogenesis
2.6.4 Multiple approaches to enhance the yield of methane
2.7 Technological developments for purification of methane
2.7.1 Adsorption methods
2.7.2 Biofiltrations and pressurized water scrubbing method
2.7.3 Refrigeration and chilling method
2.8 Factors affecting methane fermentation process
2.8.1 Temperature
2.8.2 pH
2.8.3 Nutrients
2.8.4 Retention period
2.8.5 Moisture content
2.9 Limitations and their resolutions on methane fermentation process
2.10 Conclusions and perspectives
References
3 Enzymatic production of organic acids via microbial fermentative processes
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Purpose of enzymatic production of organic acids via anaerobic digestion
3.3 Significance of biomass pretreatment via enzymatic methods
3.4 Fermentation process to produce organic acids
3.4.1 Hydrolysis
3.4.2 Acidogenesis
3.4.3 Acetogenesis
3.4.4 Methanogenesis
3.5 Organic acids synthesized through enzyme-based anaerobic digestion
3.5.1 Citric acid production
3.5.2 Acetic acid (vinegar) production
3.5.2.1 Orleans method
3.5.2.2 Trickling generators method
3.5.2.3 Enzymatic submerged fermentation method
Alcoholic fermentation (anaerobic)
Acetic fermentation (aerobic)
3.5.2.4 Current developments in the acetic acid synthesis
3.5.3 Succinic acid production
3.5.3.1 Production of succinic acid through the anaerobic pathway
3.5.3.2 Production of succinic acid through the biorefining process
3.5.4 Lactic acid production
3.5.4.1 Fermentation methods for lactic acid production
Batch fermentation
Fed-batch fermentation
Continuous fermentation
3.5.5 Gluconic acid production
3.5.6 Volatile fatty acids production
3.5.6.1 Production of volatile fatty acids by anaerobic digestion
3.6 Conclusions and perspectives
References
4 Chemoenzymatic conversion of biomass for production of value-added products
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Importance of enzymes in depolymerization of biomass
4.3 Role of microorganisms in biomass conversion
4.4 Pretreatment of biomass
4.4.1 Physical and chemical methods
4.4.2 Biological methods
4.4.2.1 Whole-cell pretreatment
4.4.2.2 Enzymatic pretreatment
4.5 Biological and chemical hybrid catalytic processes for converting biomass into value-added products
4.5.1 Functionalization of lignocellulosic biomass for efficient conversion
4.5.2 Conversion of lignocellulosic biomass into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural
4.5.3 Conversion of agricultural biomass into furfural
4.5.4 Conversion of inulin to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural
4.5.5 Conversion of furfural into furfuryl alcohol
4.5.6 Conversion of sugars into biofuels
4.5.7 Conversion of agricultural wastes into furfuryl amine
4.5.8 Conversion of xylose to furfural
4.5.9 Conversion of biomass into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and furfural
4.6 Conclusions and perspectives
References
5 Techno-economic analysis of butanol biosynthesis
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Biological effects
5.3 Chemical methodologies
5.3.1 Adsorption method
5.3.2 Distillation method
5.3.3 Gas stripping method
5.3.4 Liquid–liquid extraction method
5.3.5 Perstraction
5.3.6 Pervaporation method
5.4 Techno-economical analysis
5.4.1 Economical analysis
5.4.2 Technical analysis
5.4.2.1 Hydrothermal liquefaction method
5.4.2.2 Fast pyrolysis upgrading
5.4.2.3 Gasification-Fischer–Tropsch synthesis
5.4.3 Trends in techno-economical analysis
5.5 Optimization of butanol production cost
5.5.1 Adsorption method
5.5.2 Acid treatment method
5.5.3 Biomass chemical looping gasification method
5.5.4 Organosolv pretreatment
5.6 Commercial production cost and analysis
5.7 Conclusions and perspectives
References
6 Updated technologies for sugar fermentation to bioethanol
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Bioethanol as a sustainable energy source
6.3 Bioethanol as a precursor for valued chemicals
6.4 Industrial bioethanol production strategy
6.5 Methods of commercial level bioethanol production
6.6 Feedstocks for potential bioethanol production commercially
6.6.1 Starch- and sugar-based feedstocks
6.6.2 Cellulose-based feedstocks
6.7 Modes of operation of commercial level ethanol fermentation
6.8 Challenges in cellulosic ethanol production and technological advancements
6.9 Advanced strategies to improve enzyme saccharification of lignocelluloses
6.10 Conclusion and perspectives
References
7 Pretreatment methods for converting straws into fermentable sugars
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Composition of straw material
7.3 Utilization of straw in biomass
7.4 Pretreatment methods for converting straw into fermentable sugars
7.4.1 Physical treatment
7.4.1.1 Mechanical comminution
7.4.1.2 Microwave pretreatment
7.4.1.3 Ultrasonic pretreatment
7.4.1.4 Electron beam irradiation
7.4.1.5 High-energy electron radiation pretreatment
7.4.1.6 Pyrolysis pretreatment
7.4.2 Chemical pretreatment
7.4.2.1 Acid pretreatment
7.4.2.2 Alkali pretreatment
7.4.2.3 Organosolv pretreatment
7.4.2.4 Ionic liquid pretreatment
7.4.2.5 Deep eutectic solvents
7.4.2.6 Natural deep eutectic solvents
7.4.2.7 Liquid hot water
7.4.3 Physicochemical pretreatment
7.4.3.1 Steam explosion pretreatment
7.4.3.2 Ammonia fiber expansion
7.4.3.3 Supercritical CO2 explosion pretreatment
7.4.3.4 SO2 explosion pretreatment
7.4.3.5 Oxidative pretreatment
7.4.3.6 Sulfite pretreatment
7.4.3.7 Supercritical fluid pretreatment
7.4.4 Biological pretreatment
7.4.5 Combined pretreatment
7.5 Conclusions and perspectives
References
8 Thermal catalytic conversion of bioderived oils to biodiesel with sulfonic acid–functionalized solid materials
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Overview of biodiesel
8.2.1 Definition of biodiesel
8.2.2 Development history of biodiesel
8.2.3 Composition and physicochemical properties of biodiesel
8.3 Preparation of biodiesel with sulfonic acid–functionalized catalyst
8.3.1 Homogeneous acid catalyst
8.3.1.1 Inorganic sulfonic acid
8.3.1.2 Organic sulfonic acid
8.3.2 Heterogeneous acid catalyst
8.3.2.1 Sulfonic acid ionic liquid
8.3.2.2 Carbon-based loaded sulfonic acid
8.3.2.3 Silicon-based loaded sulfonic acid
8.3.2.4 Metal–organic skeleton loaded with sulfonic acid
8.3.2.5 Metal oxide loaded with sulfonic acid
8.3.2.6 Magnetic solid loaded with sulfonic acid
8.4 Structure–activity relationship of the functionalized catalyst with sulfonic acid
8.4.1 Structural characterization of sulfonic acid–functionalized catalyst
8.4.2 Active sites of the acid catalyst
8.4.3 Action mechanism of the acid catalyst
8.4.4 Study on the kinetics of biodiesel preparation by an acid catalyst
8.5 Conclusion and perspectives
Abbreviations
References
9 Syngas production via biomass gasification
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Potential feedstocks for syngas production
9.2.1 Hydrocarbons for syngas production
9.2.2 Biogas for syngas production
9.2.3 Biomass for syngas production
9.3 Biomass: a potent feedstock for the production of syngas production
9.3.1 First-generation (1G) biofuels
9.3.2 Second-generation (2G) biofuel
9.3.3 Third- and fourth-generation (3G and 4G) biofuels
9.4 Technologies for the generation of syngas from biomass
9.4.1 Steam–methane reforming
9.4.2 Autothermal reforming
9.4.3 Partial oxidation
9.4.4 Alternative technologies
9.4.4.1 Heat exchange reforming
9.4.4.2 Underground coal gasification
9.4.4.3 Membrane reactors
9.5 Gasification and different gasifiers
9.5.1 Fixed-bed gasifier
9.5.1.1 Updraft gasifier
9.5.1.2 Downdraft gasifier
9.5.1.3 Cross draft gasification
9.5.2 Fluidized-bed gasifier
9.5.2.1 Bubbling fluidized bed
9.5.2.2 Circulating fluid bed gasifier
9.5.3 Dual fluidized-bed gasifier
9.5.4 Entrained-bed gasifier
9.5.5 Molten salt gasifier
9.5.6 Plasma gasifier
9.5.7 Rotary kiln gasifier
9.5.8 Transport reactor gasifier
9.6 Process intensification approaches for syngas production
9.6.1 New integrated catalytic gasifiers
9.6.2 Multiconditioning functionalities into gasifiers
9.6.3 Highly reactive gasification media
9.6.4 Optimization of reaction parameters
9.7 Industrial production of syngas
9.8 Industrial applications of syngas
9.9 Challenges and barriers
9.10 Conclusion and perspectives
References
10 Production and applications of biochar
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Raw materials used for the production of biochar
10.3 Production of biochar
10.3.1 Pyrolysis
10.3.2 Gasification
10.3.3 Hydro-thermal carbonization
10.3.4 Activation of biochar
10.4 Characterization of biochar
10.4.1 Surface chemical properties and elemental analysis
10.4.2 Capacity of cation exchange
10.4.3 Physical properties of biochar
10.4.4 Biochar surface area and porosity
10.4.4.1 Effect of temperature
10.4.4.2 Effect of pressure
10.4.4.3 Effect of activation
10.4.5 Bulk chemical properties
10.4.5.1 Ash content
10.4.5.2 pH of biochar
10.4.6 Molecular/structural properties
10.4.6.1 Crystallinity
10.4.6.2 Thermal stability
10.4.6.3 Bonding structure
10.5 Applications of biochar
10.5.1 Mechanism
10.5.2 Biochar for degradation of organic pollutants
10.5.3 Biochar for photocatalysis
10.5.4 Biochar for reduction
10.5.5 Catalytic reactions using biochar
10.5.6 Organic solid waste compositing
10.5.7 Electrode material
10.5.8 Soil remediation
10.5.9 Biochar in carbon capture and storage
10.6 Conclusions and perspective
10.6.1 Perspective
10.6.2 Challenges
References
11 Upgradation of bio-oil derived from various biomass feedstocks via hydrodeoxygenation
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Upgradation of bio-oil using noble metal–based catalysts
11.3 Upgradation of bio-oil using nonnoble metal catalysts
11.4 Upgradation of lignin pyrolytic oil with metal-containing catalysts
11.5 Mechanism for upgradation of bio-oil
11.6 Conclusion and perspectives
References
12 Sustainable approaches to selective hydrolysis of cellulose with robust crystalline structure into glucose promoted by h...
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Heterogeneous catalysis
12.2.1 Reaction media assisting the degradation of cellulose
12.2.1.1 Organic solvents containing salts as reaction media
12.2.1.2 Ionic liquids as reaction media
12.2.2 Auxiliary methods for the degradation of cellulose
12.2.2.1 Dissolution/regeneration
12.2.2.2 Ball-milling
12.2.2.3 Ultrasound
12.2.2.4 Microwave irradiation
12.2.3 Heterogeneous solid acid catalysts
12.2.3.1 H-form zeolites catalysts
12.2.3.2 Sulfonated carbon catalyst
12.2.3.3 Heteropoly acids
12.2.3.4 Magnetic solid acids
12.2.3.5 Carbonaceous solid acids
12.2.3.6 Others
12.3 Conclusions and perspectives
References
13 Conversion of cellulosic biomass to furanics
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Significance of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and furfural
13.3 Lignocellulosic biomass to furanics
13.4 Direct conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to furanics
13.4.1 Direct conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and furfural in ionic liquids
13.4.2 Production of furanics from various sources of biomass using a combination of inorganic acid and metal halides as ca...
13.4.2.1 Simultaneous production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and furfural with homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis
13.4.2.2 Production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural from different sources of biomass with homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis
13.4.3 Direct conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and furfural in mono- and biphasic solvent s...
13.4.3.1 Homogeneous catalysts in a monophasic (unary) solvent system
13.4.3.2 Heterogeneous catalysts monophasic (unary) solvent system
13.4.3.3 Homogeneous catalysts in a monophasic (binary)/biphasic solvent system
13.4.3.4 Heterogeneous catalysts in monophasic (binary)/biphasic solvent
13.5 Mechanistic pathway for the formation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and furfural from lignocellulosic biomass
13.6 Industrial production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and furfural
13.7 Conclusion and perspectives
References
14 Polyalkylglycosides: sustainable production of nonionic biosurfactants from lignocellulosic biomass
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Significance and general synthesis of nonionic surfactants
14.3 Catalytic production of nonionic surfactants from cellulose as feedstocks
14.4 Biomass as a feedstock for the production of alkyl glycoside
14.5 Conclusion and perspectives
References
15 Lignocellulosic biopolymers as potential biosorbents
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Characterization of lignocellulosic biopolymer
15.2.1 Cellulose
15.2.2 Hemicellulose
15.2.3 Lignin and extractives
15.3 Natural lignocellulosic biosorbents for the removal of toxic inorganic pollutants
15.4 Lignocellulosic-based biosorbents chemically modified for the removal of toxic inorganic pollutants
15.4.1 Lignocellulosic-based biosorbents modified with base solution for the removal of toxic inorganic pollutants
15.4.2 Lignocellulosic-based biosorbents modified with mineral and organic acid solution for the removal of toxic inorganic...
15.4.3 Lignocellulosic-based biosorbents modified with oxidizing agents, metal salts, and organic compounds for the removal...
15.4.4 Lignocellulosic-based biosorbents modified by graft copolymerization for the removal of toxic inorganic pollutants
15.5 Mechanism of biosorption
15.6 Conclusion and perspectives
References
16 Biomass-derived carbonaceous materials and their applications
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 Types and composition of biomass resources
16.2 Different types of carbonaceous materials and their preparation methods
16.2.1 Preparation of activated carbon
16.2.2 Preparation of biocoal from various biomass resources
16.2.3 Preparation of graphene from various biomass resources
16.2.4 Preparation of carbon and graphene quantum dots
16.2.5 Preparation of three-dimensional porous carbon material
16.3 Application of biomass-derived carbonaceous materials
16.3.1 Environmental applications
16.3.1.1 Adsorption of oils and organic pollutants
16.3.1.2 Adsorption of atmospheric CO2
16.3.1.3 Metal ion detector or sensor
16.3.2 Applications for fuel/energy source or storage
16.3.2.1 Fuel/energy source
16.3.2.2 Supercapacitors
16.3.2.3 Batteries
16.4 Applications in biomedical devices
16.4.1 Bioimaging
16.5 Application in printing
16.5.1 Pattering
16.6 Conclusion and perspectives
References
17 Hydrodeoxygenation of lignin to hydrocarbons
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Plant biomass as renewable carbon source
17.3 Lignin as a source of fuel
17.4 Chemical conversion of lignin
17.5 Depolymerization of lignin
17.5.1 Catalytic depolymerization
17.5.1.1 Metal and base catalysts for depolymerization
17.5.1.2 Heterogeneous catalyst for depolymerization
17.6 Hydrodeoxygenation of depolymerized lignin derivatives
17.6.1 Lignin model compounds
17.6.2 Catalytic hydrodeoxygenation
17.6.2.1 Metal oxides
17.6.2.2 Mixed metal oxides and metals on oxide support bifunctional catalysts
17.6.2.3 Zeolites
17.6.2.4 Mesoporous materials
17.6.2.5 Metals on activated carbon
17.6.2.6 Ionic liquids and supercritical solvent medium
17.6.2.7 Superacid catalysts
17.6.2.8 Base catalysts
17.7 Copyrolysis of lignin with other carbon sources
17.8 Techno-economical approaches
17.9 Challenges for commercial-scale production
17.10 Conclusions and perspectives
Acknowledgment
References
18 Thermochemical methods for upgrading of lignin to aromatic chemicals
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Lignin: basic units and linkages, classification, and types
18.2.1 Basic units and linkages
18.2.2 Classification
18.2.3 Lignin types
18.2.3.1 Kraft lignin
18.2.3.2 Lignosulfonate
18.2.3.3 Organosolv lignin
18.2.3.4 Klason lignin
18.2.3.5 Milled wood lignin
18.2.3.6 Ionosolv lignin
18.3 Thermochemical methods for the depolymerization of lignin to aromatic chemicals
18.3.1 Pyrolysis of lignin
18.3.1.1 Mechanism
18.3.1.2 Influence of pyrolysis temperature
18.3.1.3 Effect of lignin type
18.3.2 Catalytic pyrolysis of lignin
18.3.3 Hydrothermal liquefaction of lignin
18.3.4 Solvothermal liquefaction of lignin
18.3.5 Catalytic solvothermal conversion of lignin to aromatic chemicals
18.3.6 Reductive depolymerization of lignin to aromatic compounds
18.3.6.1 Hydrogen donating solvents
18.3.6.2 Molecular hydrogen
18.3.7 Oxidative depolymerization of lignin
18.4 Conclusions and perspectives
References
19 Photocatalysis of biomass lignin to simple aromatic molecules
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Lignin: chemical structure, property, and source
19.3 Fundamental concept of semiconductor photocatalysis
19.4 Photocatalysis of lignin to simple phenolics over common semiconductor materials
19.5 Photocatalysis of lignin over metal-supported semiconductor materials
19.6 Photocatalysis of lignin over metal-free carbonaceous materials
19.7 Quantum dots–decorated solid catalysts for lignin photocatalysis application
19.8 Photocatalysis of lignin over other metal composites
19.9 Conclusion and perspectives
References
20 Oxidation of bio-based alcohols/carbonyls
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Heterogeneous catalytic process
20.3 Biorefining of lignocellulose for value addition
20.4 Oxidation of ethylene glycol
20.5 Oxidation of glycerol
20.6 Oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural
20.7 Conclusion and perspectives
References
21 Amination of biomass to nitrogen-containing compounds
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Conversion of carbohydrates into nitrogen-containing compounds
21.3 Conversion of chitin/chitosan to amines
21.4 Conversion of vegetable oils (fatty acids/esters) to amines
21.4.1 Noncatalytic conversion of vegetable oils to N-containing compounds
21.4.2 Catalytic conversion of vegetable oils to N-containing compounds
21.5 Conversion of lignocellulose to amines
21.6 Conversion of natural biomass to amines
21.7 Conclusions and perspectives
Abbreviations
References
22 Catalytic upgrading of CO2 to N-formamides
22.1 Introduction
22.2 The different low-cost catalyst applied to the N-formylation of amines with CO2 and hydrosilane
22.2.1 Solvent-promoted N-formylation with CO2
22.2.1.1 Dimethylsulfoxide
22.2.1.2 γ-Valerolactone
22.2.2 Ionic liquids and salts for the reductive amidation of CO2
22.2.2.1 Ionic liquids and organic salts
22.2.2.2 Inorganic salts
22.2.3 Organocatalysts for N-formylation of an amine with CO2
22.2.3.1 N-heterocyclic carbenes and related compounds
22.2.3.2 Organic superbases
22.3 Mechanism of the N-formylation of amines with CO2
22.4 Conclusion
References
23 Role of noble metal catalysts for transformation of bio-based platform molecules
23.1 Introduction
23.1.1 Recent advances in the production of bio-based platform molecules
23.1.2 Catalytic processes for the production of platform chemicals from lignocellulosic biomass
23.2 Noble metal catalysts and platform chemicals
23.2.1 Levulinic acid (C–O hydrogenation)
23.2.1.1 Noble metals and supports effect
23.2.1.2 Role of water and Ru metal
23.2.1.3 Bifunctional catalysis
23.2.1.4 Bimetallic noble metal catalysis and dehydrogenation of formic acid
23.2.2 Furfural
23.2.2.1 Side-chain hydrogenation product
2-Methyl furan (2-MF)-
Role of Ir metal in 2-methyl furan synthesis-
23.2.2.2 Ring- and side-chain hydrogenation product
Tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol (THFAL)-
Effect of morphology-
23.2.2.3 Ring-opening product from furfural hydrogenation
1,2 Pentanediol-
Role of Bronsted acidity and 1,2 PeDO selectivity-
23.2.2.4 Rearrangement product
Cyclopentanone-
23.2.2.5 Effect of Pd particle size and product selectivity
23.3 Process intensification for tetrahydrofuran production
23.3.1 Conventional chemical route for the production of tetrahydrofuran
23.3.2 Bio-based sustainable route for the production of tetrahydrofuran
23.3.3 Essential steps and systems for tetrahydrofuran synthesis
23.3.4 Effect of process equipment on tetrahydrofuran productivity
23.4 Conclusions and perspective
References
24 Catalytic transformation of biomass-based feedstocks in green solvents
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Source, pretreatment of bio-based feedstocks, and its application
24.2.1 Source of biomass-based feedstocks
24.2.2 Pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass as feedstock
24.2.3 Application of lignocellulosic biomass as feedstock
24.3 Green solvent–mediated catalytic transformation of starch/cellulose to C6-sugar
24.3.1 Production of C-6 sugar (d-glucose/or fructose)
24.3.2 Production of chemicals derived from d-glucose as bio-based feedstock
24.3.2.1 Green solvent–mediated transformation of d-glucose to fructose
24.3.2.2 Green solvent–mediated transformation of d-glucose to d-gluconic acid
24.3.2.3 Green solvent–mediated transformation of d-glucose to sorbitol
24.3.2.4 Green solvent–mediated transformation of d-glucose to levulinic acid
24.3.2.5 Green solvent–mediated transformation of d-glucose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural
24.4 Green solvent–mediated catalytic transformation of hemicellulose to C5 sugar
24.4.1 Production of C5 sugar (xylose/arabinose)
24.4.2 Production of chemicals derived from xylose as bio-based feedstock
24.4.2.1 Green solvent–mediated transformation of xylose to furfural
24.4.2.2 Green solvent–mediated transformation of xylose to xylitol
24.4.2.3 Green solvent–mediated transformation of xylose to levulinic acid
24.4.2.4 Green solvent–mediated transformation of xylose (or furfural) to other important chemicals
24.5 Green solvent–mediated catalytic transformation of lignin
24.6 Green solvent–mediated catalytic transformation of vegetable oils
24.7 Conclusions and perspective
References
Index
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